The JFK Conspiracy Essay Research Paper The free essay sample

The JFK Conspiracy Essay, Research Paper The JFK Conspiracy On November 22, 1963 President John F. Kennedy arrived in Dallas to a crowd of aroused people run alonging the streets trusting to acquire a glance of the President. As his motorcade proceeded down Elm Street, Governor Connally # 8217 ; s married woman said, # 8220 ; You can # 8217 ; Ts say that Dallas isn # 8217 ; t friendly to you today Mr. President. # 8221 ; Upon that, John F. Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States was assassinated. The United States mourned the decease of its immature and inspiring President. It has been 37 old ages since the blackwash of John F. Kennedy and many people are still unsure as to who is really responsible for his blackwash. Through the old ages at that place have been legion theories that the CIA and the FBI were someway linked to the blackwash. Though many would doubt that the president? s ain authorities would cabal to slay him ; there are several possible grounds for their possible engagement in an blackwash secret plan. We will write a custom essay sample on The JFK Conspiracy Essay Research Paper The or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The Bay of Pigs was the flicker that ignited the annihilating fire. 1500 CIA trained anti-Castro exiles were sent to prehend Cuba. At the critical last minute President Kennedy cancelled the air work stoppages which were supposed to disenable Castro? s air force. As a consequence more than 100 of the CIA? s work forces were killed ; the staying agents surrendered. ( Morrissey ) Kennedy took full public duty for the Bay of Pigs catastrophe though in secret he blamed the CIA. Kennedy fired three of the CIA? s top work forces whom were responsible for the operation: Director Allen Dulles, who was subsequently a member of the Warren Commission ( Lifton 176 ) , General Cabell, and Richard Bissel. ( Morrissey ) After the CIA lost clip, attempt, and people in the effort to procure Cuba, the CIA became hostile and wanted to acquire rid of Kennedy to forestall him from losing more land, particularly in Vietnam.Adding to the fire were Kennedy? s secret committednesss to drawing out of Vietnam and his menace to? Smash the CIA into a 1000 pieces and disperse them in the air current? ( Belzer 79 ) There were three known efforts on taking JFK? s life in the autumn of 1963. In late October, Thomas Arthur Vallee was arrested by the secret service in Chicago yearss before a scheduled visit by Kennedy. Vallee was discovered to hold an M-1 rifle, a pistol, and three thousand unit of ammunitions of ammo. Days subsequently, the Secret Service received another menace: Kennedy would be ambushed in Chicago by a Cuban hit squad. The Chicago trip was cancelled without account. On November 18, four yearss before the blackwash in Dallas, Joseph Milteer outlined the inside informations for the upcoming Texas effort to a constabulary source. None of these menaces were forwarded to governments in Dallas. ( Belzer 10 ) The sums of activity and leery incidents in Dallas on November 22, 1963 are amazing. The grounds in the 3rd and concluding effort on President Kennedy? s life in Dealey Plaza provides a ground to believe that U.S. authorities bureaus had a function in JFK? s decease. It all begins on Main Street on which the motorcade was supposed to remain ( Garrison 117 ) . The Dallas Morning News featured a elaborate map of the planned motorcade path. The motorcade was supposed to take a comparatively strait class through Dealey Plaza without go throughing by the Book Depository. Suddenly, out of the blue the motorcade veered from the approved path. This exposed JFK to snipers positioned at the Book Depository, ? Grassy Knoll? and the Dal-Tex edifice. This besides caused drivers to decelerate down to an estimated 10 stat mis per hr. The Secret Service have had to O.K. the unexplained alterations. ( Garrison 117-119 ) There were many lensmans and people videotaping in the Dealey Plaza who captured the lay waste toing minutes in which President Kennedy was murdered. Mary Muchmore shooting a film of the concluding frontlet shooting into Kennedy? s caput ( Belzer 17 ) . Orville Nix shot a picture that features flashes from the grassy mound and an image of what people believe to be a gunslinger ( Belzer 17 ) . Robert Hughes captured motion from the 6th floor corner window of the Book Depository and the window next to it ( Belzer 17 ) . Abraham Zapruder shooting possibly the most celebrated movie of all. His movie stemmed grounds that for case, there was a inquiry? based on the timing of the fire sequence taken from his film- as to whether a lone gunslinger could hold fired so rapidly with truth. Marine sharpshooters tried- and failed ( Belzer 15 ) . Other grounds indicated that police officers on the scene turned non toward the Book Depository, but toward Zapruder? s place neat the grassy mound. Zapruder testified that he believed shootings came from behind him: on the grassy mound. None of the movies of all time made it into the Warren Commission. There was yet another movie shot by a lady referred to as the? Babushka Lady? . This movie was shot from a point where the depositary Windowss and the grassy mound could be seen clearly. The Monday following the blackwash two work forces, whom she believed to be Secret Service or FBI agents, appropriated the movie. The work forces told the? Babushka Lady? that her movie would be utile grounds, and if she turned it over it would be returned within 10 yearss. The tape was neer returned, and the work forces finally said it was? bad movie? . ( Belzer 19 ) Another leery activity that took topographic point on the tragic twenty-four hours was the presence of the cryptic? umbrella adult male? . The umbrella adult male was in the crowd on the Dealey Plaza pavement. He is really noticeable because he is the merely 1 to convey an umbrella on the peculiarly cle Ar and warm twenty-four hours. In exposure before the limousine enters the place, the adult male is shown standing casually with his umbrella closed. But, as the president? s auto comes nigher a? stage dancing? ( Belzer 22 ) begins. As JFK draws parallel to the adult male, the president is hit by the first slug. The adult male opens his umbrella pumping it in the air many times so closes it and lowers it. At that same minute his confederate thrust his right arm into the air in what many research workers believe to be a clinched carpus salutation. ( Belzer 22 ) Yet another baffling incident is the deficiency of Secret Service protection during the motorcade path and the shot. Secret Service agents really turned down an offer from the Dallas Police Department for more security. During the motorcade the service diminished their shield by cut downing bike constabulary from eight to four. Once firing began exposures and pictures show unusual deficiency of reaction from agents siting behind Kennedy. While JFK grasp his pharynx, Secret Service agents are looking about, two towards Kennedy, two towards the rear except Clint Hill, an agent brought at the last minute by the first lady. No agents move to screen the president from farther gunshot. After the first shooting was fired Kennedy? s driver really brings the auto to a arrest. ( Belzer 46 ) Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested for the slaying of President Kennedy. When he was taken into detention, Oswald pleaded that he was set up, he was a chump ( Garrison 70 ) . The grounds environing the instance of Oswald, and the grounds environing the twenty-four hours of the blackwash suggest that in fact Oswald was the perfect pasty for the CIA to model. The CIA had been puting up Oswald since every bit early as January 1961, the month of Kennedy? s startup. Research workers believe that the CIA had people impersonate Oswald in order to paint the image that Oswald was a deranged Communist bravo. Before the blackwash, Oswald was spotted at the Russian embassy in Mexico, purchasing a auto, at the rifle scope ( Belzer 67 ) , and giving out pro Castro cusps in New Orleans. ? In the intelligence community there is a term used to depict this sort of manipulated behaviour designed to make a coveted image: sheepdipping. ( Garrison 70 ) . ? It seems that Oswald had been in New Orleans to be sheepdipped under the counsel of Guy Banister and that he had been sent back to Dallas when the mission was accomplished ( Garrison 71 ) . Curiously adequate records indicate that the Oswald who enlisted in the Marines was 5? 11, ? the Oswald who went to Russia was 5? 6? while the dead Oswald measured in at 5? 9? ( Belzer 68 ) At midday, on a street in Dallas, the president of the United States is assassinated. He is barely dead when the official version is broadcast. In that version, which will be the unequivocal 1, Lee Harvey Oswald entirely has killed John Kennedy. ? The arm does non co-occur with the slug, nor the slug with the holes. The accused does non co-occur with the accusal: ( Galeano 183 ) ? Oswald is an exceptionally bad shooting, but harmonizing to the official version, his Acts of the Apostless were those of a title-holder sharpshooter and Olympic sprinter. He has fired an old rifle with impossible velocity and his charming slug, turning and writhing to perforate Kennedy and John Connally, the governor of Texas, remains strangely integral ( Stone JFK ) . Oswald denies it. But no 1 knows, no 1 will of all time cognize what he has to state. Two yearss subsequently he collapses before the telecasting cameras, the whole universe informant to the spectacle, his oral cavity shut by Jack Ruby, a two-bit mobster and minor seller in adult females and drugs. Ruby says he has avenged Kennedy out of nationalism and commiseration for the hapless widow. ( Galeano 183 ) President Lyndon Baines Johnson set up a commission led by head justness Earl Warren, to carry on an official probe into Kennedy # 8217 ; s slaying. On 24 September 1964, the Warren Commission eventually issued a study of their findings ( Gest 28 ) . They concluded that President Kennedy was murdered by a individual gunslinger, Lee Harvey Oswald. ( Lifton 12 ) The Warren Commission was made up of seven LBJ appointed members. Three of them had ties to the CIA or the military elite. The Report concluded that the shootings that killed Kennedy were fired from the 6th floor of the Texas School Book Depository edifice, and no other site. They farther concluded that there was three shootings fired in all, and all of them were fired from Lee Harvey Oswald. The Commission stated that there was no confederacy, domestic or international, and that there was no connexion between Jack Ruby and Oswald. However, through the 20 six volumes and the about 13 thousand pages of testimonies and documental exhibits hints of testimonies from Kennedy? s doctors, Dallas physicians, eyewitnesses, or civilian movies can non be found. Belzar, Richard. UFO? s, JFK, and Elvis confederacies you don? Ts have to be brainsick to believe. New York: The Ballantine Publishing Group, 1999. Galeano, Eduardo. Memory of Fire: Three Century of the Wind. Part Three of a Trilogy, translated by Cedric Belfrage: Pantheon Books, 1988. Gest, Ted, at Al. ? JFK The Untold Story of the Warren Commission. ? U.S. News A ; World Report 17 August 1992: 28-42. JFK. Dir. Oliver Stone. Warner Bros, 1991. Lifton, David S. Best Evidence. New York: Carroll A ; Graf Publishers, Inc, 1980. Peterson, Roger S. ? Declassified. ? American History July/ August 1996: 22-26, 54-57. The Bay of Pigs Revisited. Ed. Michael D. Morrissey. May. 1993. 3 May. 2000 .

Pierre Curie - Biography and Achievements

Pierre Curie - Biography and Achievements Pierre Curie was a French physicist, physical chemist, and Nobel laureate. Most people are familiar with his wifes accomplishments (Marie Curie), yet dont realize the importance of Pierres work. He pioneered scientific research in the fields of magnetism, radioactivity, piezoelectricity, and crystallography. Heres a brief biography of this famous scientist and a list of his most notable achievements. Birth: May 15, 1859 in Paris, France, son of Eugene Curie and Sophie-Claire Depouilly Curie Death: April 19, 1906 in Paris, France in a street accident. Pierre was crossing a street in the rain, slipped, and fell under a horse-drawn cart. He died instantly from a skull fracture when a wheel ran over his head. It is said Pierre tended to be absent-minded and unaware of his surroundings when he was thinking. Claim to Fame: Pierre Curie and his wife  Marie  shared half the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with Henri Becquerel for their research into radiation.Pierre also received the Davy Medal in 1903. He was awarded the Matteucci Medal in 1904 and the Elliot Cresson Medal in 1909 (posthumously).Pierre and Marie also discovered the elements  radium  and  polonium.He also co-discovered the piezoelectric effect with his brother Jacques. The piezoelectric effect is where compressed crystals give off an electric field. In addition, Pierre and Jacques found crystals could deform when subjected to an electrical field. They invented the Piezoelectric Quartz Electrometer to aid in their investigations.Pierre developed a scientific instrument called the Curie Scale so that he might take accurate data.For his doctoral research, Pierre examined magnetism. He formulated a description of the relationship between temperature and magnetism that became known as Curies law, which uses a constant known as the Curie constant. He found there was a critical temperature above which ferromagnetic materials lose their behavior. That transition temperature is known as the Curie point. Pierres magnetism research is considered among his greatest contributions to science. Pierre Curie was a brilliant physicist. He is considered one of the founders of the field of modern physics.Pierre proposed the Curie Dissymmetry Principle, which states that a physical effect cannot have dissymmetry separate from its cause.The element curium, atomic number 96, is named in honor of Pierre and Marie Curie.Pierre and his student were the first to discover nuclear energy from heat emitted by radium. He observed radioactive particles might carry a positive, negative, or neutral charge. More Facts About Pierre Curie Pierres father, a doctor, provided his early education. Pierre earned a math degree at age 16 and had completed the requirements for a higher degree by age 18. He could not immediately afford to pursue his doctorate, so he worked as a lab instructor.Pierres friend, physicist Jozef Wierusz-Kowalski, introduced him to Marie Sklodowska. Marie became Pierres lab assistant and student. The first time Pierre proposed to Marie, she refused him, eventually agreeing to marry him on July 26, 1895.Pierre and Marie were the first to use the word radioactivity. A unit used to measure radioactivity, the Curie, is named in honor of either Marie or Pierre or both of them (a point of argument among historians).Pierre was interested in the paranormal, as he believed it might help him understand physics better and especially magnetism. He read books on spiritualism and attended seances, viewing them as scientific experiments. He took careful notes and measurements, concluding some phenomena he witnesse d did not appear to be faked and could not be explained. Pierre and Maries daughter Irene and son-in-law Frederic Joliot-Curie were physicists who studied radioactivity and also received Nobel prizes. The other daughter, Eve, was the only member of the family who was not a physicist. Eve wrote a biography about her mother, Marie. Pierre and Maries granddaughter Helene is a nuclear physics professor and grandson Pierre is a biochemist. Their parents were Irene and Frederic Joliot-Curie.  Pierre Joliot is named for Pierre Curie.

A Study On Classroom Management Education Essay

Classroom direction accomplishments are an built-in portion of instructional rating of both the pupils and the instructors themselves. Actually, classroom direction schemes are a more toothsome name for schoolroom subject. This paper will discourse the indispensable constituents to do schoolroom direction effectual. Part I. BODY LANGUAGE Body linguistic communication is an of import portion of communicating, which can represent 50 % or more of what we are pass oning. If one wishes to pass on good, so it makes sense to understand how they can ( and can non ) use their organic structure to state what they mean. It comes in bunchs of signals and positions, depending on the internal emotions and mental provinces. Acknowledging a whole bunch is therefore far more dependable than seeking to construe single elements. Body linguistic communication is a term for communicating utilizing organic structure motions or gestures alternatively of, or in add-on to, sounds, verbal linguistic communication or other communicating. It forms portion of the class of paralinguistic communication, which describes all signifiers of human communicating that are non verbal linguistic communication. This includes the most elusive of motions that many people are non cognizant of, including blink and little motion of the superciliums. In add-on, organic structure linguistic communication can besides integrate the usage of facial looks. Although they are by and large non cognizant of it, many people send and receive non-verbal signals all the clip. These signals may bespeak what they are genuinely experiencing. The technique of reading people is used often. For illustration, the thought of mirroring organic structure linguistic communication to set people at easiness is normally used in interviews. It sets the individual being interviewed at easiness. Mirroring the organic structure linguistic communication of person else indicates that they are understood. Body linguistic communication signals may hold a end other than communicating. Both people would maintain this in head. Perceivers limit the weight they place on non-verbal cues. Signalers clarify their signals to bespeak the biological beginning of their actions. One of the most basic and powerful body-language signals is when a individual crosses his or her weaponries across the thorax. This can bespeak that a individual is seting up an unconscious barrier between themselves and others. It can besides bespeak that the individual ‘s weaponries are cold which would be clarified by rubbing the weaponries or huddling. When the overall state of affairs is amicable, it can intend that a individual is believing profoundly about what is being discussed. However, in a serious or confrontational state of affairs, it can intend that a individual is showing resistance. This is particularly so if the individual is tilting off from the talker. A harsh or clean facial look frequently indicates straight-out ill will. Such a individual is non an ally, and may be sing combative tactics. Consistent oculus contact can bespeak that a individual is believing positively of what the talker is stating. It can besides intend that the other individual does non swear the talker plenty to â€Å" take his or her eyes off † the talker. Lack of oculus contact can bespeak negativeness. On the other manus, persons with anxiousness upsets are frequently unable to do oculus contact without uncomfortableness. Eye contact is frequently a secondary and deceptive gesture because we are taught from an early age to do oculus contact when speech production. If a individual is looking at you but is doing the arms-across-chest signal, the oculus contact could be declarative that something is trouble oneselfing the individual, and that he or she wants to speak about it. Alternatively, if while doing direct oculus contact a individual is shirking with something, even while straight looking at you, it could bespeak the attending is elsewhere. Incredulity is frequently indicated by averted regard, or by touching the ear or rubing the mentum. So is eyestrain, or itching. When a individual is non being convinced by what person is stating, the attending constantly wanders, and the eyes will gaze away for an drawn-out period. Boredom is indicated by the caput leaning to one side, or by the eyes looking directly at the talker but going somewhat unfocused. A caput joust may besides bespeak a sore cervix, and unfocussed eyes may bespeak optic jobs in the hearer. Interest can be indicated through position or extended oculus contact. Deceit or the act of keep backing information can sometimes be indicated by touching the face during conversation. It should be noted that some people, with certain disablements, or those on the autistic spectrum, usage and understand organic structure linguistic communication otherwise, or non at all. Interpreting their gestures and facial looks, or deficiency thereof, in the context of normal organic structure linguistic communication normally leads to misinterpretations and misunderstandings, particularly if body linguistic communication is given precedence over spoken linguistic communication. It should besides be stated that people from different civilizations could construe organic structure linguistic communication in different ways. Part II. DISCUSS LEGAL ISSUES IN REGARDS TO SCHOOL DISCIPLINE School subject today would be a tougher job than of all time, even without all these alterations, because of the countrywide addition of troubled households and disorderly childs. Some schools, particularly those in interior metropoliss, have pupils who are literally violent criminals. School subject has two chief ends: ( 1 ) guarantee the safety of staff and pupils, and ( 2 ) create an environment conducive to larning. Serious pupil misconduct affecting violent or condemnable behaviour lickings these ends and frequently makes headlines in the procedure. However, the commonest subject jobs involve noncriminal pupil behaviour. These less dramatic jobs may non endanger personal safety, but they still negatively affect the acquisition environment. Disruptions interrupt lessons for all pupils, and riotous pupils lose even more learning clip. Research workers calculate that in many schools, pupils lost 7,932 instructional yearss ( 44 old ages ) in-school and out-of-school suspensions in a individual academic twelvemonth. The being of subject jobs in school may lend to an environment that facilitates school force and offense. On a day-to-day or hebdomadal happening, jobs such as pupil racial tensenesss, intimidation, sexual torment of other pupils, verbal maltreatment of instructors, widespread schoolroom upset, and Acts of the Apostless of discourtesy for instructors in public schools. The happening of unwanted pack and cult activities, and due to the terrible nature of these incidents, nowadayss all studies of pack and cult activities during the school twelvemonth. Secondary school principals across the United States revealed that most decision makers felt more strict due procedure processs should follow in subject instances than those required by federal ordinances and school policies. The principals besides tended to believe that bodily penalty should be permitted under certain fortunes and that both unequal instructor preparation refering subject and a deficiency of equal alternate plans for pupils were the major factors restricting schools ‘ abilities to keep order. However, today principals lack the tools they used to hold for covering even with the boisterous childs. Once, they could throw out such childs for good or direct them to particular schools for the hard-to-discipline. The particular schools have mostly vanished, and province instruction Torahs normally do non let for lasting ejection. So at best, a school might pull off to reassign a pupil criminal elsewhere in the same territory. Educators today besides find their custodies tied when covering with another disruptive and much larger group of pupils, those covered by the 1975 Persons with Disabilities Education Act ( IDEA ) . This jurisprudence, which mandates that schools provide a â€Å" free and appropriate instruction † for kids irrespective of disablement and supply it, furthermore, within regular schoolrooms whenever humanly possible efficaciously strips pedagogues of the authorization to reassign or to suspend for long periods any pupil classified as necessitating particular instruction. This would non count if particular instruction included chiefly the wheelchair-bound or deaf pupils whom we normally think of every bit handicapped. However, it does non. Over the past several decennaries, the figure of kids classified under the mistily defined disablement classs of â€Å" learning disablement † and â€Å" emotional perturbation † has exploded. Many of these childs are those one time merely called â€Å" unwieldy † or â€Å" antisocial † : portion of the legal definition of emotional perturbation is â€Å" an inability to construct or keep satisfactory interpersonal relationships with equals and instructors, â€Å" in other words, to be portion of an orderly community. Prosecutors indicates that disproportional Numberss of the juvenile felons they now see are particular instruction pupils. With IDEA limitations haltering them, school functionaries can non react forcefully when these childs get into battles, expletive instructors, or even put pupils and staff at serious hazard, as excessively frequently happens. One illustration captures the jurisprudence ‘s absurdness. School functionaries in Connecticut caught one pupil go throughing a gun to another on school premises. One, a regular pupil, received a yearlong suspension, as federal jurisprudence requires. The other, handicapped ( he stuttered ) , received merely a 45-day suspension and particular, individualised services, as IDEA requires. Most times, though, schools can non acquire even a 45-day reprieve from the pandemonium these childs can unleash. It is of import to maintain the ultimate end in head while working to better school subject. As instruction research worker ‘s points out, â€Å" the end of good behaviour is necessary, but non sufficient to guarantee academic growing. † Effective school subject schemes seek to promote responsible behaviour and to supply all pupils with a hearty school experience every bit good as to deter misconduct. Part III. CONVENANT AND CONDUCT MANAGEMENT Conduct direction is centered on one ‘s beliefs about the nature of people. By incorporating cognition about human diverseness ( and individualism, at the same clip ) into a peculiar instructional doctrine, instructors could pull off their schoolrooms in a better, more effectual manner. Research workers have pointed out the importance of helping pupils in positive behaviours. In be aftering schoolroom direction, instructors should see utilizing an self-asserting communicating manner and behaviour. In add-on, they should ever cognize what they want their pupils to make and affect them in the several acquisition activities, under the general conditions of clearly and explicitly stated school broad and schoolroom regulations. Harmonizing to Iverson and Froyen, behavior direction is indispensable to the creative activity of a foundation for â€Å" an orderly, task-oriented attack to learning and larning † , therefore taking to allowing pupil ‘s greater independency and liberty through socialisation. An effectual behavior direction program should besides mention to teacher control and disposal of effects. The undermentioned constituents of such a program are focused on in this sum-up: acknowledging responsible behaviours, rectifying irresponsible and inappropriate behaviour, disregarding, propinquity control, soft verbal rebukes, detaining, discriminatory seating, clip owed, time-out, presentment of parents/guardians, written behavioural contract, puting bounds outside the schoolroom, and reinforcement systems. All of these constituents are presented so they can be identified in illustrations of best instruction patterns. Covenant direction stresses the schoolroom group as a societal system. Teacher and pupil functions and outlooks shape the schoolroom into an environment conducive to larning. In other words, the civilization of any given school is alone to that school. However, it is straight influenced by the civilization of the larger community whose educational ends are to be met. A strong connexion between school and community must be invariably revised and modified harmonizing to the demands of social dynamism. As schools become really diverse, instructors and pupils should go cognizant of how to utilize diverseness to beef up the school/classroom societal group. Quality schools are defined by instructor effectivity and pupil accomplishment under the protections of edifice strong interpersonal accomplishments. In this visible radiation, instructor and pupil relationships are indispensable to guaranting a positive school and schoolroom atmosphere. Classroom direction subject jobs can be dealt with either on an single footing ( between instructor and pupil ) or by group job work outing ( category meetings ) . As common trust builds up between instructor and pupils, the latter are bit by bit released from teacher supervising by going separately responsible. This is how both â€Å" pedagogues and pupils become co-participants in the teaching-learning procedure, endeavoring to do the most of themselves and their corporate experience. † Part IV. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT Plan Classroom direction and schoolroom organisation are intertwined. High school pupils possess sophisticated societal accomplishments and by and large experience that instructors need to gain their regard before they are to the full willing to collaborate. In order to acquire loath pupils on their side, instructors need to show a clear schoolroom direction program that creates a positive acquisition environment and exhibits consistence, lucidity, equity, foresight, and the sharing of a schoolroom direction program. Consistency is instructors tell pupils what to anticipate and so present. This applies to all facets of the high school schoolroom runing from placing trial yearss to presenting direction. Get downing every English category, for illustration, by presenting a inquiry for treatment or written response, helps set up a everyday that pupils can anticipate. Clarity is being clearly explicated their acquisition aims for the class every bit good their outlooks for pupil behaviour. Discuss these subjects with pupils during the first hebdomad of category and supply specific illustrations of what pupils are expected to carry through and how they are expected to act. Practicing schoolroom regulations is non entirely reserved for simple school. By exemplifying through role-play with pupils what is considered appropriate and inappropriate behaviour, instructors leave no room for pupil reading on these of import points. Fairness relates to handling pupils every bit, administrating both congratulations and effects based on behaviour non on the pupil. It besides applies to demoing regard for your pupils by puting realistic outlooks and offering counsel and support to assist pupils achieve those ends. A foresight map out categories in progress with pupils. Spend the first few yearss of category discoursing an overview of what you hope to carry through every bit far as content, accomplishment development, and pupil behaviour and category format. If a pupil does non stay by category outlooks, they know in progress what repercussions they will confront. The sharing of schoolroom direction program is to incarnate these features and high school instructors need to get the hang schoolroom organisation. By showing a elaborate schoolroom direction program in authorship, instructors set the tone for an organized high school schoolroom. A schoolroom direction program includes class aims, category outlooks, assignment calendar, and pupil information. Course Objectives identifies the general subjects your class will cover every bit good as accomplishments your pupils will develop over the class of a semester or school twelvemonth. Class Expectations, or category regulations, include coming to category prepared, turning in assignments on clip and behaving in a manner that Fosters student larning. Be specific in outlooks and be clear about the reverberations pupils will confront if they do non adhere to these regulations. Assignment Calendars should place subjects covered for one one-fourth. Important yearss such as debuts to new units, trials , assignment due day of the months and exam reappraisals should be clearly marked. School vacations and instructor working daies should be outlined every bit good. Student Information should be completed by pupils during the first hebdomad of school. In the event that you want to update parents on a major achievement or severe trouble their kid has encountered in your category, you will hold the necessary contact information available to hasten parent communicating. Part V. RESEARCH ARTICLE In a article written by Sherry H. Brown, School Discipline: What Works and What Does n’t, it does n’t take a batch of research to state us that school subject is different today than it was in the 1950s. This article discussed assorted surveies that showed pupils who misbehave in school express a assortment of grounds for making so: Some think that instructors do non care about them. Others do non desire to be in school at all. They do non see success in school of import anymore. Students are incognizant that bad behaviour will ensue in penalty they will non wish. Discipline hatchet mans have to travel through long processs of due procedure: hearings, specific charges, informants, and entreaties. I read this article to my category, despite these hurdlings ; pupils of Inkster High School agreed that subject is needed in schools. One pupil stated, â€Å" If there were no subject, the school would non be distinguished from the street. † This article pointed out countries that cause disciplinary jobs in school. †¢ Denial: In many schools, their pupils intimidate instructors. Out of fright of revenge, they fail to describe jobs or disregard them trusting that the pupils responsible will discontinue the bad behaviour by themselves. †¢ Troubled Students: State and Federal Torahs require that some particular needs pupils receive particular attending. Many grownups and school systems believe that â€Å" troubled pupils † are non responsible for their actions, therefore they are non punished every bit badly as other pupils are. †¢ Legal Procedures: Because of the raised consciousness of the civil rights of kids, the jurisprudence requires grownups to travel through expensive, time-consuming and confusing processs in respects to school subject. These legal processs do protect the rights of kids, but make it really hard to halt school subject jobs. †¢ Modeling: Many grownups fail to pattern the behaviours they want from pupils. Modeling the regulations that pupils are to follow should be required of all grownups. All grownups in a community, particularly parents and instructors, need to pattern unity, honestness, regard and self-denial. †¢ Enforcement ; Because of internal administrative jobs or deficiency of processs, many school functionaries fail to implement the regulations or punish pupils for misdemeanors. Some fear cases from parents ; others merely do non care, or they are â€Å" burned out. † †¢ Time-out and Detention: In-school suspensions, time-out and detainment have been antique solutions for troubled pupils. Yet today, many pupils do non mind detainment, preferring it to traveling place to an empty or opprobrious family. Many consider time-out a quiet topographic point to work. Detention lets them socialise after school. In add-on, both time-out and detainment get them attending from caring grownups. †¢ Fuzzy Rules: Surveies have shown that many regulations are non purely enforced. Many school and schoolroom regulations do non do sense to pupils. Some subject codifications are â€Å" fuzzed † and non clear on outlooks and penalties. Some riotous pupils are labeled with codifications like ADHD ( Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder ) or Emotional Damage. This leads some school staff assume that they can non implement positive behaviour and alternatively must fall back to inquiring parents to â€Å" medicate † them. †¢ Self Esteem: Many schools have emphasized self-pride over and above everything else. Some instructors are afraid to train or demand good behaviour because it will ache the kid ‘s self-pride. School subject has become lax over the old ages, as our relationships have weakened. Amalgamate school systems and mega schools have made the separation between household and school wider than of all time. These mega schools have mostly ignored the local community. In add-on, some parents have lost touch with their kids for many different grounds. For school subject to be successful, we need to reconstruct those relationships. Parents and schools need to work together to transfuse the importance of instruction into kids of all ages. Finding subject processs that work is a occupation for pupils, parents, and instructors to research together. In today ‘s society, working together within the school and community will assist learn kids that working as a squad can efficaciously work out the job. Part VI. Reference Cipani, Ennio: Classroom Management for All instructors: 12 Plans For Evidence-Base Practice. Pearson Custom Printing, 2003 Cohen, David ; Body Language, What You Need To Know, 2007 Froyen, L. A. , A ; Iverson, A. M. ; School-Wide and Classroom Management: The Brooding Educator-Leader ( 3rd Ed. ) . Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 1999 Iverson, Annette M. Building Competence in Classroom Management and Discipline. Pearson Custom Printing, 2003. Livingston, Drs. Sharon and Glen ; How to Use Body Language. Psy Tech Inc. , 2004 Brodinsky, Ben. Student Discipline: Problems and Solutions. American Association of School Administrators Critical Issues Report. Sacramento, California: Education News Service, 1980. Gram molecules, Oliver C. Strategies to Reduce Student Misbehavior. Washington, D.C. : Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, 1989. Hymowitz, Kay S. : Who Killed School Discipline? City Journal, 2000 A Study On Classroom Management Education Essay Classroom direction accomplishments are an built-in portion of instructional rating of both the pupils and the instructors themselves. Actually, classroom direction schemes are a more toothsome name for schoolroom subject. This paper will discourse the indispensable constituents to do schoolroom direction effectual. Part I. BODY LANGUAGE Body linguistic communication is an of import portion of communicating, which can represent 50 % or more of what we are pass oning. If one wishes to pass on good, so it makes sense to understand how they can ( and can non ) use their organic structure to state what they mean. It comes in bunchs of signals and positions, depending on the internal emotions and mental provinces. Acknowledging a whole bunch is therefore far more dependable than seeking to construe single elements. Body linguistic communication is a term for communicating utilizing organic structure motions or gestures alternatively of, or in add-on to, sounds, verbal linguistic communication or other communicating. It forms portion of the class of paralinguistic communication, which describes all signifiers of human communicating that are non verbal linguistic communication. This includes the most elusive of motions that many people are non cognizant of, including blink and little motion of the superciliums. In add-on, organic structure linguistic communication can besides integrate the usage of facial looks. Although they are by and large non cognizant of it, many people send and receive non-verbal signals all the clip. These signals may bespeak what they are genuinely experiencing. The technique of reading people is used often. For illustration, the thought of mirroring organic structure linguistic communication to set people at easiness is normally used in interviews. It sets the individual being interviewed at easiness. Mirroring the organic structure linguistic communication of person else indicates that they are understood. Body linguistic communication signals may hold a end other than communicating. Both people would maintain this in head. Perceivers limit the weight they place on non-verbal cues. Signalers clarify their signals to bespeak the biological beginning of their actions. One of the most basic and powerful body-language signals is when a individual crosses his or her weaponries across the thorax. This can bespeak that a individual is seting up an unconscious barrier between themselves and others. It can besides bespeak that the individual ‘s weaponries are cold which would be clarified by rubbing the weaponries or huddling. When the overall state of affairs is amicable, it can intend that a individual is believing profoundly about what is being discussed. However, in a serious or confrontational state of affairs, it can intend that a individual is showing resistance. This is particularly so if the individual is tilting off from the talker. A harsh or clean facial look frequently indicates straight-out ill will. Such a individual is non an ally, and may be sing combative tactics. Consistent oculus contact can bespeak that a individual is believing positively of what the talker is stating. It can besides intend that the other individual does non swear the talker plenty to â€Å" take his or her eyes off † the talker. Lack of oculus contact can bespeak negativeness. On the other manus, persons with anxiousness upsets are frequently unable to do oculus contact without uncomfortableness. Eye contact is frequently a secondary and deceptive gesture because we are taught from an early age to do oculus contact when speech production. If a individual is looking at you but is doing the arms-across-chest signal, the oculus contact could be declarative that something is trouble oneselfing the individual, and that he or she wants to speak about it. Alternatively, if while doing direct oculus contact a individual is shirking with something, even while straight looking at you, it could bespeak the attending is elsewhere. Incredulity is frequently indicated by averted regard, or by touching the ear or rubing the mentum. So is eyestrain, or itching. When a individual is non being convinced by what person is stating, the attending constantly wanders, and the eyes will gaze away for an drawn-out period. Boredom is indicated by the caput leaning to one side, or by the eyes looking directly at the talker but going somewhat unfocused. A caput joust may besides bespeak a sore cervix, and unfocussed eyes may bespeak optic jobs in the hearer. Interest can be indicated through position or extended oculus contact. Deceit or the act of keep backing information can sometimes be indicated by touching the face during conversation. It should be noted that some people, with certain disablements, or those on the autistic spectrum, usage and understand organic structure linguistic communication otherwise, or non at all. Interpreting their gestures and facial looks, or deficiency thereof, in the context of normal organic structure linguistic communication normally leads to misinterpretations and misunderstandings, particularly if body linguistic communication is given precedence over spoken linguistic communication. It should besides be stated that people from different civilizations could construe organic structure linguistic communication in different ways. Part II. DISCUSS LEGAL ISSUES IN REGARDS TO SCHOOL DISCIPLINE School subject today would be a tougher job than of all time, even without all these alterations, because of the countrywide addition of troubled households and disorderly childs. Some schools, particularly those in interior metropoliss, have pupils who are literally violent criminals. School subject has two chief ends: ( 1 ) guarantee the safety of staff and pupils, and ( 2 ) create an environment conducive to larning. Serious pupil misconduct affecting violent or condemnable behaviour lickings these ends and frequently makes headlines in the procedure. However, the commonest subject jobs involve noncriminal pupil behaviour. These less dramatic jobs may non endanger personal safety, but they still negatively affect the acquisition environment. Disruptions interrupt lessons for all pupils, and riotous pupils lose even more learning clip. Research workers calculate that in many schools, pupils lost 7,932 instructional yearss ( 44 old ages ) in-school and out-of-school suspensions in a individual academic twelvemonth. The being of subject jobs in school may lend to an environment that facilitates school force and offense. On a day-to-day or hebdomadal happening, jobs such as pupil racial tensenesss, intimidation, sexual torment of other pupils, verbal maltreatment of instructors, widespread schoolroom upset, and Acts of the Apostless of discourtesy for instructors in public schools. The happening of unwanted pack and cult activities, and due to the terrible nature of these incidents, nowadayss all studies of pack and cult activities during the school twelvemonth. Secondary school principals across the United States revealed that most decision makers felt more strict due procedure processs should follow in subject instances than those required by federal ordinances and school policies. The principals besides tended to believe that bodily penalty should be permitted under certain fortunes and that both unequal instructor preparation refering subject and a deficiency of equal alternate plans for pupils were the major factors restricting schools ‘ abilities to keep order. However, today principals lack the tools they used to hold for covering even with the boisterous childs. Once, they could throw out such childs for good or direct them to particular schools for the hard-to-discipline. The particular schools have mostly vanished, and province instruction Torahs normally do non let for lasting ejection. So at best, a school might pull off to reassign a pupil criminal elsewhere in the same territory. Educators today besides find their custodies tied when covering with another disruptive and much larger group of pupils, those covered by the 1975 Persons with Disabilities Education Act ( IDEA ) . This jurisprudence, which mandates that schools provide a â€Å" free and appropriate instruction † for kids irrespective of disablement and supply it, furthermore, within regular schoolrooms whenever humanly possible efficaciously strips pedagogues of the authorization to reassign or to suspend for long periods any pupil classified as necessitating particular instruction. This would non count if particular instruction included chiefly the wheelchair-bound or deaf pupils whom we normally think of every bit handicapped. However, it does non. Over the past several decennaries, the figure of kids classified under the mistily defined disablement classs of â€Å" learning disablement † and â€Å" emotional perturbation † has exploded. Many of these childs are those one time merely called â€Å" unwieldy † or â€Å" antisocial † : portion of the legal definition of emotional perturbation is â€Å" an inability to construct or keep satisfactory interpersonal relationships with equals and instructors, â€Å" in other words, to be portion of an orderly community. Prosecutors indicates that disproportional Numberss of the juvenile felons they now see are particular instruction pupils. With IDEA limitations haltering them, school functionaries can non react forcefully when these childs get into battles, expletive instructors, or even put pupils and staff at serious hazard, as excessively frequently happens. One illustration captures the jurisprudence ‘s absurdness. School functionaries in Connecticut caught one pupil go throughing a gun to another on school premises. One, a regular pupil, received a yearlong suspension, as federal jurisprudence requires. The other, handicapped ( he stuttered ) , received merely a 45-day suspension and particular, individualised services, as IDEA requires. Most times, though, schools can non acquire even a 45-day reprieve from the pandemonium these childs can unleash. It is of import to maintain the ultimate end in head while working to better school subject. As instruction research worker ‘s points out, â€Å" the end of good behaviour is necessary, but non sufficient to guarantee academic growing. † Effective school subject schemes seek to promote responsible behaviour and to supply all pupils with a hearty school experience every bit good as to deter misconduct. Part III. CONVENANT AND CONDUCT MANAGEMENT Conduct direction is centered on one ‘s beliefs about the nature of people. By incorporating cognition about human diverseness ( and individualism, at the same clip ) into a peculiar instructional doctrine, instructors could pull off their schoolrooms in a better, more effectual manner. Research workers have pointed out the importance of helping pupils in positive behaviours. In be aftering schoolroom direction, instructors should see utilizing an self-asserting communicating manner and behaviour. In add-on, they should ever cognize what they want their pupils to make and affect them in the several acquisition activities, under the general conditions of clearly and explicitly stated school broad and schoolroom regulations. Harmonizing to Iverson and Froyen, behavior direction is indispensable to the creative activity of a foundation for â€Å" an orderly, task-oriented attack to learning and larning † , therefore taking to allowing pupil ‘s greater independency and liberty through socialisation. An effectual behavior direction program should besides mention to teacher control and disposal of effects. The undermentioned constituents of such a program are focused on in this sum-up: acknowledging responsible behaviours, rectifying irresponsible and inappropriate behaviour, disregarding, propinquity control, soft verbal rebukes, detaining, discriminatory seating, clip owed, time-out, presentment of parents/guardians, written behavioural contract, puting bounds outside the schoolroom, and reinforcement systems. All of these constituents are presented so they can be identified in illustrations of best instruction patterns. Covenant direction stresses the schoolroom group as a societal system. Teacher and pupil functions and outlooks shape the schoolroom into an environment conducive to larning. In other words, the civilization of any given school is alone to that school. However, it is straight influenced by the civilization of the larger community whose educational ends are to be met. A strong connexion between school and community must be invariably revised and modified harmonizing to the demands of social dynamism. As schools become really diverse, instructors and pupils should go cognizant of how to utilize diverseness to beef up the school/classroom societal group. Quality schools are defined by instructor effectivity and pupil accomplishment under the protections of edifice strong interpersonal accomplishments. In this visible radiation, instructor and pupil relationships are indispensable to guaranting a positive school and schoolroom atmosphere. Classroom direction subject jobs can be dealt with either on an single footing ( between instructor and pupil ) or by group job work outing ( category meetings ) . As common trust builds up between instructor and pupils, the latter are bit by bit released from teacher supervising by going separately responsible. This is how both â€Å" pedagogues and pupils become co-participants in the teaching-learning procedure, endeavoring to do the most of themselves and their corporate experience. † Part IV. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT Plan Classroom direction and schoolroom organisation are intertwined. High school pupils possess sophisticated societal accomplishments and by and large experience that instructors need to gain their regard before they are to the full willing to collaborate. In order to acquire loath pupils on their side, instructors need to show a clear schoolroom direction program that creates a positive acquisition environment and exhibits consistence, lucidity, equity, foresight, and the sharing of a schoolroom direction program. Consistency is instructors tell pupils what to anticipate and so present. This applies to all facets of the high school schoolroom runing from placing trial yearss to presenting direction. Get downing every English category, for illustration, by presenting a inquiry for treatment or written response, helps set up a everyday that pupils can anticipate. Clarity is being clearly explicated their acquisition aims for the class every bit good their outlooks for pupil behaviour. Discuss these subjects with pupils during the first hebdomad of category and supply specific illustrations of what pupils are expected to carry through and how they are expected to act. Practicing schoolroom regulations is non entirely reserved for simple school. By exemplifying through role-play with pupils what is considered appropriate and inappropriate behaviour, instructors leave no room for pupil reading on these of import points. Fairness relates to handling pupils every bit, administrating both congratulations and effects based on behaviour non on the pupil. It besides applies to demoing regard for your pupils by puting realistic outlooks and offering counsel and support to assist pupils achieve those ends. A foresight map out categories in progress with pupils. Spend the first few yearss of category discoursing an overview of what you hope to carry through every bit far as content, accomplishment development, and pupil behaviour and category format. If a pupil does non stay by category outlooks, they know in progress what repercussions they will confront. The sharing of schoolroom direction program is to incarnate these features and high school instructors need to get the hang schoolroom organisation. By showing a elaborate schoolroom direction program in authorship, instructors set the tone for an organized high school schoolroom. A schoolroom direction program includes class aims, category outlooks, assignment calendar, and pupil information. Course Objectives identifies the general subjects your class will cover every bit good as accomplishments your pupils will develop over the class of a semester or school twelvemonth. Class Expectations, or category regulations, include coming to category prepared, turning in assignments on clip and behaving in a manner that Fosters student larning. Be specific in outlooks and be clear about the reverberations pupils will confront if they do non adhere to these regulations. Assignment Calendars should place subjects covered for one one-fourth. Important yearss such as debuts to new units, trials , assignment due day of the months and exam reappraisals should be clearly marked. School vacations and instructor working daies should be outlined every bit good. Student Information should be completed by pupils during the first hebdomad of school. In the event that you want to update parents on a major achievement or severe trouble their kid has encountered in your category, you will hold the necessary contact information available to hasten parent communicating. Part V. RESEARCH ARTICLE In a article written by Sherry H. Brown, School Discipline: What Works and What Does n’t, it does n’t take a batch of research to state us that school subject is different today than it was in the 1950s. This article discussed assorted surveies that showed pupils who misbehave in school express a assortment of grounds for making so: Some think that instructors do non care about them. Others do non desire to be in school at all. They do non see success in school of import anymore. Students are incognizant that bad behaviour will ensue in penalty they will non wish. Discipline hatchet mans have to travel through long processs of due procedure: hearings, specific charges, informants, and entreaties. I read this article to my category, despite these hurdlings ; pupils of Inkster High School agreed that subject is needed in schools. One pupil stated, â€Å" If there were no subject, the school would non be distinguished from the street. † This article pointed out countries that cause disciplinary jobs in school. †¢ Denial: In many schools, their pupils intimidate instructors. Out of fright of revenge, they fail to describe jobs or disregard them trusting that the pupils responsible will discontinue the bad behaviour by themselves. †¢ Troubled Students: State and Federal Torahs require that some particular needs pupils receive particular attending. Many grownups and school systems believe that â€Å" troubled pupils † are non responsible for their actions, therefore they are non punished every bit badly as other pupils are. †¢ Legal Procedures: Because of the raised consciousness of the civil rights of kids, the jurisprudence requires grownups to travel through expensive, time-consuming and confusing processs in respects to school subject. These legal processs do protect the rights of kids, but make it really hard to halt school subject jobs. †¢ Modeling: Many grownups fail to pattern the behaviours they want from pupils. Modeling the regulations that pupils are to follow should be required of all grownups. All grownups in a community, particularly parents and instructors, need to pattern unity, honestness, regard and self-denial. †¢ Enforcement ; Because of internal administrative jobs or deficiency of processs, many school functionaries fail to implement the regulations or punish pupils for misdemeanors. Some fear cases from parents ; others merely do non care, or they are â€Å" burned out. † †¢ Time-out and Detention: In-school suspensions, time-out and detainment have been antique solutions for troubled pupils. Yet today, many pupils do non mind detainment, preferring it to traveling place to an empty or opprobrious family. Many consider time-out a quiet topographic point to work. Detention lets them socialise after school. In add-on, both time-out and detainment get them attending from caring grownups. †¢ Fuzzy Rules: Surveies have shown that many regulations are non purely enforced. Many school and schoolroom regulations do non do sense to pupils. Some subject codifications are â€Å" fuzzed † and non clear on outlooks and penalties. Some riotous pupils are labeled with codifications like ADHD ( Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder ) or Emotional Damage. This leads some school staff assume that they can non implement positive behaviour and alternatively must fall back to inquiring parents to â€Å" medicate † them. †¢ Self Esteem: Many schools have emphasized self-pride over and above everything else. Some instructors are afraid to train or demand good behaviour because it will ache the kid ‘s self-pride. School subject has become lax over the old ages, as our relationships have weakened. Amalgamate school systems and mega schools have made the separation between household and school wider than of all time. These mega schools have mostly ignored the local community. In add-on, some parents have lost touch with their kids for many different grounds. For school subject to be successful, we need to reconstruct those relationships. Parents and schools need to work together to transfuse the importance of instruction into kids of all ages. Finding subject processs that work is a occupation for pupils, parents, and instructors to research together. In today ‘s society, working together within the school and community will assist learn kids that working as a squad can efficaciously work out the job. Part VI. Reference Cipani, Ennio: Classroom Management for All instructors: 12 Plans For Evidence-Base Practice. Pearson Custom Printing, 2003 Cohen, David ; Body Language, What You Need To Know, 2007 Froyen, L. A. , A ; Iverson, A. M. ; School-Wide and Classroom Management: The Brooding Educator-Leader ( 3rd Ed. ) . Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 1999 Iverson, Annette M. Building Competence in Classroom Management and Discipline. Pearson Custom Printing, 2003. Livingston, Drs. Sharon and Glen ; How to Use Body Language. Psy Tech Inc. , 2004 Brodinsky, Ben. Student Discipline: Problems and Solutions. American Association of School Administrators Critical Issues Report. Sacramento, California: Education News Service, 1980. Gram molecules, Oliver C. Strategies to Reduce Student Misbehavior. Washington, D.C. : Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, 1989. Hymowitz, Kay S. : Who Killed School Discipline? City Journal, 2000

No Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

No - Essay Example This led to the development of electric vehicles from the middle of the 19th century as well as those that were propelled by internal combustion engines. This opened up business opportunities for inventors of battery and motor technology as well as those who traded in storage of electricity. However, internal combustion technology managed to get an early mass adoption after the assembly line was invented by Henry Ford (Etzion & Struben 2011, p. 3). In the case of Better Place, the timing was convenient as it was launched when most governments were concerned with the emission of greenhouse gases by vehicles that ran on the internal combustion technology. From the point of view of the five forces analysis developed by Porter, also known as P5F, it is evident that the advancement of electric vehicles by Better Place had the advantages associated with new market entrants. For example, one of its geographical targets was Hawaii, which imported 90 percent of its oil in order to meet its ga soline requirements. Further, the state had the highest prices for gasoline in the entire nation. Therefore, revival of the electric vehicle, whose production had temporarily stopped in the 1930s, was a direct threat to the internal combustion technology that had raised concerns among environmentalists. Suppliers in the industry also had the advantage of a high bargaining power because of their small number as compared to suppliers of vehicles that ran on internal combustion engines. The electric vehicles created a situation of threat of substitutes for the internal combustion vehicles since they served the same purpose but at a cheaper cost of maintenance and in more environmental-friendly ways. However, with the key challenge facing electric vehicles being the low mileage provided by the battery as well as the slow development of charging points, it was not clear how quickly the market’s demand side would develop. Further, according to a report prepared by Ernest and Young, consumers, especially in the United States, were not readily willing to consider electric vehicles as practical options to internal combustion (Etzion & Struben 2011, p. 14). This placed a limit on the number of units that would be released into the market at any given time. In light of this, the United State’s vehicle manufacturer, General Motors (GM), withdrew from the production of electric vehicles, resulting in a major setback for advocates of the technology. However, at the same time, this also paved way for many other smaller companies to venture into industry. This consequently reduced their bargaining power as suppliers, forcing them to shift focus from luxury vehicles to more affordable ones. Scenario Planning The business scenario at Better Place was planned to address the concept of making the world a better place by the year 2020. The founder’s vision was based on the idea of creating a link between customers, battery companies and vehicle companies in a way that would facilitate and maintain the widespread adoption of electric vehicles (Etzion & Struben 2011, p. 4). The link was aimed at overcoming limited mobility, which was the most significant downside of electric vehicles. This planning went beyond what had limited most companies in the industry. The companies believed that adoption of elect

Answer all questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Answer all questions - Essay Example However, things changed soon after I discovered that my friend lied to me.1 Although I clearly told him that I need a car that should cost $4000, I was very much infuriated to find out later that the deal was actually for the car to be sold to be at the price of $6000. Since he was my friend, I had complete trust on him and I signed the documents without thoroughly going through them and this was my biggest mistake. On finding out about the correct situation, I was left in the middle of nowhere and since I had signed the deal, I had to pay 2000 extra for the car. This happened few years back when I was in studying in college and it happened to be one of my biggest mistakes in life but I learnt a lot from this experience and now I make every decision very carefully. 2 Work Cited Cash, Thomas, F., & Pruzinsky, Thomas. Body Image: A Handbook of Theory, Research, and Clinical Practice. Guilford Press, 2004, pp 91. Rosengren, Karl, E. Media effects and beyond: culture, socialization and l ifestyles. Routledge Publishers, 1994, pp 181.

Profession Selected Essay Example for Free

Profession Selected Essay An accountancy firm provides a vast number of services, such as accountancy, assurance, information technology and secretarial services. For the scope of this paper, we will select and focus on assurance services entailed by an external auditor on public limited companies in accordance with the requirements of the Companies Act. 1. 1 Research Methodology The research methodology adopted in this assignment shall utilize both primary and secondary data in order to attain sufficient information necessary for the job research on assurance services. The primary data will comprise a qualitative research carried out through interviews with audit managers and in-charge auditors of one of the big four accountancy firms, KPMG, which is shown in Appendix A. Secondary information shall entail relevant textbooks, journal articles and web documents as portrayed in the bibliography section. 1. 2 Daily Demands of a Professional Auditor in Public Practice The comments provided by the audit manager interviewed, shown in Appendix A of this paper are much in line with what is stated in auditing textbooks, with respect to the work of the auditor. Planning is the initial stage of the audit, once the auditor is selected and the directors sign the engagement letter (AAT Interactive Text Unit 17 2005, p 14). The audit strategy commences with the objectives of the audit, which normally are identifying key audit areas, nothing-potential problems, assigning the staff properly and facilitating the audit review (AAT Interactive Text Unit 17 2005, p 94). This planning step normally entails an examination of the industry, and the company’s management in order to ascertain the inherent risks of the firm. The flow of documentation and extent of controls present in the organization are also examined with the goal of setting the control risk. Once the inherent and control risks are set, the detection risk, which is the only risk within the auditor’s control, is established. The setting of the materiality level, which is an integral part of risk assessment lead to the end of the planning stage of the audit (AAT Interactive Text Unit 17 2005, p 96 – 101). The actual testing of account balances and transactions commences when the fieldwork starts, normally at the client’s premises. Tests of control will be applied on the internal controls present in the corporation with the aim of evaluating their effectiveness in detecting and preventing error and fraud. This aids the auditor in determining the substantive tests necessary. In organizations with effective internal control systems, restrictive substantive testing is usually carried out, which comprises audit test on the areas where reasonable assurance was not provided by reliance on the internal controls (AAT Interactive Text Unit 17 2005, p 15). The daily demands of an auditor are not only on testing, especially when considering the in-charge auditor. Direction and supervision of audit assistants is necessary in order to ensure proper co-ordination. Meetings with the engagement partner, manager and audit staff is also carried out during the audit, both at the planning stage, fieldwork and completion phase (AAT Interactive Text Unit 17 2005, p 110 – 114). 1. 3 Skills and personality traits necessary in an audit environment A generic answer was provided by the audit manager interviewed, in which he stated that technical, communication and computer application skills are necessary. Good appearance and ethical behavior were noted as regards the personality traits. We can further compound on such matters by amplifying the skills necessary and expounding the ethical attitude necessary for such profession. Communication includes three main skills, speaking, listening and interpersonal skills. Speaking skills comprises clear articulation, intonation effects and the pace and pauses adopted during the conveying of the message. During a conversation, both face-to-face and over the telephone it is important that we listen. Our ability in properly decoding messages and responding to his feedback even through a â€Å"yes† can build a positive relationship, which will ultimately enhance proper communication (AAT Interactive Text Units 22 and 23 2005, p 224). Interpersonal skills include a mixture of speaking and listening abilities. An individual with good interpersonal abilities will be highly effective in motivating staff, team-building and customer care, which are very important in auditing. Such important benefits are derived from staff who is able in negotiating and persuading other people, managing conflict and communicate informatively and supportively (AAT Interactive Text Units 22 and 23 2005, p 201). The computer applications and technical knowledge pointed out during the interview are also important skills. Computer software that is normally utilized by an auditor are office software like Microsoft word and excel, and accounting packages such as sage, which will be adopted by the client in order to record accounting transactions and provide the necessary reports. As regards the technical competence, which is frequently attained through formal training in a university needs to be further enhanced once achieved. A degree qualification is not an end, but a means to an end. It is therefore vital that once enrolling in such profession we continue covering important technical areas, such as accounting and auditing standards in order to progress our knowledge on such aspects. Indeed it is common practice for audit firms to induce and support staff to higher formal education relevant to the auditing profession to increase and widen their technical abilities. The ethical behavior outlined by the manager interviewed can be further illustrated with the aid of the code of ethics of accountants and auditors. An auditor is required to be independent and portray technical competence, integrity and professional attitude in his behavior and judgments (Cottell G. P. et al. 1990, p 29). Independence is achieved by not having close relations in the company, not accepting gifts from customer and the client does not entail a substantial part of the auditor’s income, which is outside the scope of the employee (AAT Interactive Text Unit 17 2005, p 25 26). Technical abilities are sustained through the license requirements, which will be further referred to in the following section. While the latter two, highly depend on the character of the individual and the attention devoted to his behavior. The individual interviewed outlined the importance of proper behavior as shown in Appendix A. 1. 4 Licensing Requirements for an Auditor The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants is the representative body in charge of licensing accountants and auditors in public practice (The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants). The person interviewed outlined this point. From such interview the case of technical competence and practical experience also emerged in order to attain such license. A degree majoring in accountancy is necessary from an accredited university, together with a number of years of practical experience with a licensed auditor working in public practice. 1. 5 Remuneration of an Auditor The point that initially an auditor employed in an audit firm will be remunerated a lower wage in relation to the industry arose from the interview. Indeed the interviewee outlined that an average wage of $20 per hour is achieved. This stems from the fact that at the beginning an assistant auditor would need considerable on the job training and could not be given a job alone. However, through progression and promotion, the wage can increase reaching a mean of $32. 21 per hour. The possibility of room for growth arose for such job. 1. 6 Opportunities and Threats of in an Audit Environment The audit manager highlighted the fact that a correlation exists between the industry performance and the demand for auditors, like every industry related job. In this respect, the better the economy the greater the job opportunities for auditors. However, the unification of a number of different countries in North America and Europe is providing the opportunity of international markets. As a result, the rewards that successful candidates can achieve once attaining the qualification and entering in such profession are improving (Successful Students get their just reward 2005, p 8). For instance, in the big four audit firms, like KPMG, secondment opportunities are frequently provided to staff, once they gain sufficient experience in the profession. This thus enables them to work in other countries and widen their practical experience on auditing. It was also noted in section 1. 3 that audit firms are supporters of formal education in order to improve the technical competence of staff. Therefore employees also have the opportunity to increase their education with the aid of the company. Such help may consist of study leave and even financial assistance on the course fee. In the industry such training opportunities are difficult. The manager interviewed showed his concern upon the main threat of an auditor, which consists of providing an incorrect audit opinion and losing the firm’s reputation. At the beginning of our employment in such profession, however the threat will stem from the increasing competition arising from the rise of students undergoing accountancy courses to commence working as auditors. In addition, such industry is considered as a monopolistic market, in which a vast number of clients and auditors exist (Shailer G. et al 2004, p 263). This leads to tough competition requesting the need of high efficiency and service quality, which will be exerted on a tougher selection of employees in the firm. Thus it is important that we enhance the skills necessary for an auditor, portrayed in section 1. 3, to overcome such threat. 1. 7 Final Thought – My Strengths and Weaknesses in relation to this Profession I am already involved in an accountancy course and therefore the technical skills are being achieved. My commitment to studies is also boosting me in such area. I also possess a good knowledge of computer applications software and always successfully managed to work in a team. The main weakness that I can presently identify is the inability to apply such technical knowledge in practice. This arises from my limited working experience in such area. However, I am confident that once I commence working as an assistant auditor, I will mitigate this problem through the on the job training provided and my dedication to such work. Appendix A – Questions and Answers attained from the interview 1. Is planning necessary in auditing? If yes explain what it entails? An external auditor is required by Auditing Standards to properly plan an audit before the commencement of the audit itself. This aids the auditor is assessing risk and identifying key areas of the audit. A properly set plan also promotes coordination and efficiency in the audit team. 2. What is main objective of the audit? The primary duty of the auditor is to prepare a report on the truth and fairness of the financial statements. 3. What are the salient daily demands during the audit fieldwork? Once the in-charge auditor starts the audit assignment, he should coordinate his and the teams efforts in order to complete the audit within the specified deadline. The internal control system should be checked first via tests of control in order to identify the internal control strengths and weaknesses, which will ultimately affect the audit tests carried out. This is followed by substantive procedures on the important elements of the financial statements. 4. Name the main skills that an external auditor necessitates? Apart from technical competence in accountancy and auditing, an auditor requires good communication skills both written and verbal and knowledge of computer applications. On advancement, management and leadership skills are also necessary in view, that he will be managing an audit team. 5. How should an auditor behave at the client’s premises? A professional attitude is a must in auditing. We have to keep abreast the fact that due to the lack of tangibility in a service, the customer will frequently seek tangible factors such as the behavior of audit staff in assessing the service provided. This is thus an important facet to sustain the reputation of the firm. Apart from dressing smartly, the auditor is required to behave ethically, paying particular attention in the communication style and words used when discussing the audit with the client. 6. What is the current compensation of a recent graduate in this profession? At the beginning, the normal average wage of an assistant auditor would be $20 per hour. Such low wage is provided at the commencement in relation to the industry in view of the on the job training necessary to such staff. Upon progression and promotion the employee can reach $32. 21 per hour. 7. What are the current opportunities in the audit profession? This profession is highly correlated with the industries performance. The more the companies incorporated, the greater the job opportunities for an auditor. The increasing unification of countries, like the European Union is also providing access to international markets. 8. Name the main threats of an auditor? The most critical threat that an auditor faces is the public exposure in instances where an incorrect audit opinion is provided and the organization faces financial problems. In these cases the reputation of the audit firm is destroyed, like Arthur Anderson in the Enron incident. The increasing competition in such profession is also exerting considerable pressure on efficiency and audit fee. 9. What are the licensing requirements to operate as an auditor in public practice? A special license is necessary to operate as an auditor, which is provided by American Institute of Chartered Accountants once sufficient technical competence and audit training are achieved. Bibliography AAT Interactive Text Unit 17 (2005). Implementing Audit Procedures. London: BPP Professional Education. AAT Interactive Text Units 22 and 23 (2005). Health and Safety and Personal Effectiveness. London: BPP Professional Education. Cottell G. P. ; Perlin M. T. (1990). Accounting Ethics: A Practical Guide for Professionals. Westport: Quorum Books. Shailer G. ; Cummings L. ; Vatuloka E. ; Welch S. (2004). Discretionary Pricing in a Monopolistic Audit Market, International Journal of Auditing, Vol. 8, Issue 3. Successful Students get their just reward, The News Letter, 29th June 2005. The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants. Legislative Activities and State Licensing Issues (on line). Available from: http://www. aicpa. org/Legislative+Activities+and+state+licensing+Issues/ (Accessed 21st May 2007)

Like A Virgin.. Or Not :: essays research papers fc

Like a Virgin†¦or not   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Madonna had always been a holy icon until the early 1980’s when the name â€Å"Madonna† developed a dual connotation. The introduction of America’s top female sex symbol Madonna created an image far opposite of the previously known hallowed one. In John Fiske’s essay â€Å"Madonna,† he depicts the singer’s character, portraying her as socially and semiotically powerful. Although his essay is currently outdated, Fiske illustrates an illusion of Madonna that Generation Xers eventually accepted and will probably never forget.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sex has always been a controversial matter in American society. Before the 1980’s, those that openly articulated their views about sex were thought of as promiscuous and perverse, unless they were male. Perhaps, that is why the aura of Madonna stirred raving controversy across America. Fiske notes that her image was not a â€Å"model meaning for young girls in patriarchy, but a site of semiotic struggle between the forces of patriarchal control and feminine resistance, of capitalism and the subordinate, of the adult and the young (Fiske 282).† Never before had a woman presented herself so provocatively yet so comfortably.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the beginning, Madonna ultimately sacrificed sexual purity. Her daring exploitation of sex from a feminine point of view was definitely a breakthrough in 1980’s American society. Often, she dressed like a man and grabbed herself in â€Å"sacred† and â€Å"unseen† places. Actions like these, as Fiske points out, presented a threat but â€Å"not the traditional and easily contained one of woman as a whore but the more radical one of woman as independent of masculinity (Fiske 284).† Young girls regarded her actions not as â€Å"tarty† or â€Å"seductive† but as completely â€Å"acceptable.† Eventually, they embraced her image and strived to follow her example of the independent and sexually licentious woman (Fiske 283). Society has finally accepted feminine independence and accredited Madonna as the pioneer for introducing that autonomy. In many ways, she now represents the woman’s metamorphosis. As Fiske noted she began by showing â€Å"both her pleasure in her own physicality and the fun she finds (found) in admitting and expressing pleasure: it is (was) a sexual-physical pleasure that has (had) nothing to do with men†¦(Fiske 285).† While this may have been an impression of Madonna in the 1980’s, she has evolved into what society deems as the epitome of badass woman: utterly independent. Fiske’s essay does not really have much application to the perception of Madonna in today’s society.

Persuasive Communication Theory

Persuasive Communication Theory in Social Psychology: A Historical Perspective Icek Ajzen University of Massachusetts – Amherst From M. J. Manfredo (Ed) (1992). Influencing Human Behavior: Theory and Applications in Recreation and Tourism (pp 1– 27). Champaign, IL: Sagamore Publishing. Persuasive Communication Theory Page 1 Few subjects in social psychology have attracted as much interest and attention as persuasive communication. One of the first topics to be systematically investigated, persuasion has been the focus of intense research efforts throughout much of social psychology's brief scientific history.Untold experiments have been conducted to unravel the intricate web of factors that appear to play a role in determining the effectiveness of a persuasive message. These attempts have revealed a degree of complexity that seems to defy explanation and that poses serious obstacles to theory construction. However, recent years have seen considerable progress at the the oretical level and a resurgence of empirical work has done much to invigorate the field and provide a better understanding of the fundamental psychological processes underlying persuasion.To appreciate the significance of these developments we must compare the emerging ideas and research findings with those from earlier efforts. The present chapter is designed to provide the required historical perspective. Since it aims to review developments in our understanding of the persuasion process, emphasis is placed on ideas and theories rather than on methodological or practical concerns; empirical research findings are summarized only in broad outline when needed to make a point of theoretical significance.The solution of problems created by recreation and tourism often involves persuasion in one form or another. As the chapters in the second part of this book illustrate, recreationists must be persuaded to observe rules of safety, to avoid conflicts with other visitors, and to keep thei r impact on the environment to a minimum. Although social psychologists have rarely tested their ideas in the context of recreation and tourism, the findings and conclusions discussed below have obvious implications for any attempt to influence beliefs, attitudes, and behavior in this domain.THE NATURE OF PERSUASION Persuasive communication involves the use of verbal messages to influence attitudes and behavior. Although the context of persuasion must necessarily be considered, the verbal message, designed to sway the hearts and minds of the receivers, is at the core of persuasive communication. Through a process of reasoning, the message exerts its influence by force of the arguments it contains. As we shall see below, this emphasis on reasoning sets persuasive communication apart from other social influence strategies.Structure of a Message As a general rule, a message consists of three parts: An advocated position, a set of general arguments in support of the advocated position, and specific factual evidence designed to bolster the general arguments (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1981). The advocated position may be a stand on a particular issue (e. g. , support for a tax increase) or a recommended action (e. g. , donating blood). The general arguments will typically supply reasons for adopting the advocated position, and justification for the arguments is provided in the form of factual evidence.Consider the question of instituting a senior comprehensive examination for undergraduate college students. Petty and Cacioppo (1986, pp. 54-59) published some examples of general arguments and supportive evidence they have used in their research program. Among the major arguments contained in Petty and Cacioppo's messages were the claims that instituting a comprehensive exam raises students' grade point averages and leads to improvement in the quality of undergraduate teaching. The factual evidence in support of the first argument was formulated as follows (pp. 4-55): The N ational Scholarship Achievement Board recently revealed the results of a five-year study conducted on the effectiveness of comprehensive exams at Duke University. The results of the study showed that since the comprehensive exam has been introduced at Duke, the grade point average of undergraduates has increased by 31%. At comparable schools without the exams, grades increased by only 8% over the same period. The prospect of a comprehensive exam clearly seems to be effective in challenging students to work harder and faculty to teach more effectively.It is likely that the benefits observed at Duke University could also Persuasive Communication Theory Page 2 be observed at other universities that adopt the exam policy. If accepted as valid, the factual evidence should result in acceptance of the argument that instituting a senior comprehensive exam will raise grade point averages, and acceptance of the argument in turn should increase the likelihood that receivers will endorse the po sition in favor of instituting a comprehensive exam, as advocated in the message.There is, of course, no assurance that receivers of a message will in fact accept the arguments and evidence it contains. On the contrary, identifying the factors and conditions that produce acceptance of information contained in a message is the major purpose of persuasion theory and research. Alternative Influence Strategies In order to develop a better understanding of the nature of persuasion, it is instructive to contrast persuasion with a few alternative influence strategies. The review offered here is far from exhaustive but it will help highlight some critical aspects of persuasive communication.Coercive Persuasion People can be induced to behave in a prescribed way by offering a sizable reward for compliance or by threatening severe punishment for noncompliance. This strategy of change can be very effective in producing the desired behavior, but its effectiveness is contingent on supervision (F rench and Raven, 1959) and has few lasting effects on beliefs or attitudes. Enduring attitude change by means of coercion is more likely in the context of total institutions, such as prisons, mental hospitals, or prisoner-of-war camps.Situations of this kind enable control over many aspects of an individual's life for an extended period of time. Even here, however, enduring attitude change is difficult to obtain and often fades after release from the institution (see Schein, 1961). Hypnosis and Subliminal Perception Instead of trying to overcome resistance to change by force of coercion, one can attempt to circumvent conscious opposition by means of hypnosis or presentation of subliminal messages. Posthypnotic induction can be used to instruct individuals upon awakening to engage in specified behaviors or to hold new attitudes (e. . , Rosenberg, 1956). There is, however, some question as to whether hypnosis actually represents an altered state of consciousness that can be used to ci rcumvent people's usual resistance to manipulation of their beliefs and actions (cf. Barber, 1965; Wagstaff, 1981). Use of subliminal perception to bring about change is similarly problematic. Its effectiveness depends on the presentation of information at an intensity level too low for conscious perception, yet high enough for it to enter unconscious or subconscious awareness.Clearly, such a fine balance demands careful calibration and, given individual differences in perceptual acuity, may not be achievable in a mass communication context. In any event, even when subliminal perception can be demonstrated, its effects on attitudes and behavior tend to be of rather small magnitude (cf. Erdelyi, 1974). Conditioning and Affect Transfer Another way of trying to avoid resistance to change involves the use of conditioning procedures. It has been argued that attitudes can be changed by means of classical conditioning (e. . , Staats and Staats, 1958) and that behavior can be influenced thr ough the systematic use of reinforcements in an instrumental conditional paradigm (e. g. , Krasner, 1958). Since the advantage of conditioning in comparison to direct persuasion rests on the assumed ability of conditioning to operate without awareness of the influence attempt, the extent to which individuals submitted to conditioning form hypotheses about systematic associations created in the conditioning paradigm is of crucial importance.Contrary to earlier claims, it now appears that there is no convincing evidence that adult human beings can be conditioned without awareness (cf. Brewer, 1974). An idea related to classical conditioning has emerged in the recent marketing literature where it has been proposed (Batra and Ray, 1986; Mitchell and Olson, 1981) that positive or negative affect elicited by one stimulus (the advertising) can transfer automatically to an associated stimulus (the advertised brand). This Persuasive Communication Theory Page 3 ffect transfer, however, is ass umed to occur only when individuals have no other, more informed basis, for evaluating the brand in question (Shimp, 1981). Moreover, given the results of research on conditioning in human beings, it can be assumed that affect transfer, if it occurs at all, occurs only in the presence of awareness of the contingencies involved. Subterfuge obvious heuristic in a persuasion context has to do with the communicator's credibility. The position advocated in a message may be accepted if the message comes from a highly credible source but rejected if the source is perceived to lack credibility.When using this rule of thumb, receivers accept or reject the advocated position or action without considering the merits of the arguments contained in the message. Conclusions Whereas the strategies discussed thus far all in one way or another try to prevent or neutralize awareness of, and thus resistance to, the influence attempt, the strategies considered here subtly manipulate the situation in ord er to promote a psychological state that leads people voluntarily to engage in the desired behavior.The foot-in-the-door technique (Freedman and Fraser, 1966) and other sales ploys are good examples of this approach. When using the footin-the-door technique, a small request SQ acceded to by most individuals SQ is followed by a much larger request. Due presumably to the commitment produced by agreeing to the small request, conformity with the large request tends to increase. An alternative strategy involves first confronting a person with an unreasonably large request and then appearing to compromise by offering compliance with a smaller request.In a highly readable book, Cialdini (1988) describes a number of ways in which subterfuge of this kind can be employed to elicit behaviors that might otherwise not be performed. Subterfuge strategies take advantage of people's various needs to reciprocate any favor received, to be liked by others, to be consistent, and so forth. Compliance is secured without the benefit of discussing the merits or costs of the requested action. Heuristics We have noted that change by means of persuasive communication is based on a careful deliberation of the pros and cons associated with an advocated position or ction. We shall see in subsequent sections, however, that receivers of a message sometimes make judgments about the advocated position without going through an elaborate reasoning process. Instead, they may rely on heuristics or rules of thumb to arrive at a conclusion (cf. Chaiken, 1980, 1987). The most Our discussion shows that social influence can operate in a variety of ways and that various strategies are available to take advantage of the different possibilities. Nevertheless, persuasive communication occupies a unique position in the matrix of social influence.Of all the available strategies it is the only one that appeals to reason, attempting to bring about change and compliance by convincing the individual of the valid ity or legitimacy of the advocated position. This tactic can be much more difficult than, say, coercion, but it also has important advantages. Besides being more compatible with democratic and humanistic values, persuasive communication can produce profound and lasting change, a goal not easily attained by other means. THE PERSUASION CONTEXT No message appears in a vacuum.At a minimum, we can usually identify the source of a message: an editor of a newspaper editorial, a lawyer pleading a client's case before a jury, or a movie star asking for donations to a charity. The communicator's identity, however, is only one of the many factors that constitute the context of persuasive communication. Classical analysis (Lasswell, 1948) has divided communication into several distinct aspects that can be summarized as who says what, how, and to whom. More formally these aspects are known as source, message, channel, and receiver factors; together, they constitute the context of 1 persuasion.So urce Factors Source factors are observed or inferred characteristics of the communicator. They include biological attributes such as age, race, height, and sex; behavioral features such as Persuasive Communication Theory Page 4 facial expressions, mannerisms, hand and body movements, and the way the communicator is dressed; social properties such as income, power, and social status; and personality traits such as self-confidence and extraversion. The most frequently studied source factors, however, are the communicator's credibility and attractiveness.Credibility refers to the perceived expertise and trustworthiness of the communicator. In other words, does the communicator have the knowledge to provide an informed opinion on the issue in question and, if so, can he or she be trusted to present all relevant information in an unbiased fashion? As noted earlier, persuasion is generally assumed to increase with credibility. It has similarly been proposed that the amount of change is in fluenced by the attractiveness or likability of the source, whether attractiveness is defined in terms of physical features or psychological and behavioral characteristics.Receiver Factors On the opposite end of the communication context, parallel to source factors, are characteristics of the receiver or audience to whom the message is addressed. These characteristics include the receivers' personality traits, sex, social status, intelligence, involvement, and so forth. Any attribute of the audience, or combination of attributes, may provide a context that contributes to the effectiveness of the message. Channel Factors The context of the message is also defined by the means used to communicate it.Information can be communicated face-to-face, in writing, or by way of an audio tape or video tape. Note that although it is possible to hold the content of the message (the general arguments and factual evidence) constant across channels, different modes of communication will often vary i n terms of some of the context factors. For instance, the audience obtains more information about physical and behavioral characteristics of the source from face-to-face or video messages than when the information is presented in written or oral form.Thus, it may be difficult in some instances to determine whether differences in persuasion are due to variations in the communication channel or to associated contextual differences that may confound the observed effect. Message Factors Potential confounding of a more serious kind can occur in the case of message factors because variations message features are often accompanied by differences in content. Message factors concern the ways in which information is communicated to the audience.Among the factors that have been considered are the order in which arguments are presented, one- versus twosided presentations, and emotional versus nonemotional appeals (e. g. , humorous messages or messages that arouse fear versus neutral messages). To see why variations in message characteristics are often confounded with differences in message content, consider the case of one- versus two-sided communications. Clearly, to present both sides of an issue, an effective message must contain information and arguments not contained in a message that supports only the advocated position.In a twosided message, the communicator mentions arguments that could be used to support the opposite side and then proceeds to refute those arguments. In addition, of course, the communicator also discusses the arguments in favor of the position advocated in the message. Only this part is the same as or similar to the one-sided message. In the case of emotional versus neutral appeals, problems of confounding occur because humorous or fear-arousing communications generally contain information and arguments specifically designed to generate these emotions.It is thus difficult to separate the effects of fear or humor from the effects due to differences in the information contained in humorous versus nonhumorous messages or in high- versus lowfear messages. Situational Factors The persuasion context contains several situational variables that do not fit easily into the traditional framework of source, message, channel, and receiver factors. Among these situational variables are distraction and forewarning. Distraction can be the result of environmental noise, or it can be internal as when a person is preoccupied with other concerns.Forewarning refers to the availability Persuasive Communication Theory Page 5 of information before exposure to the message, which warns the receiver either that an influence attempt is imminent or that the communicator is planning to advocate a certain position. In either case, forewarning may prepare receivers to rally their defenses against the forthcoming message. The Hovland Tradition Scientific work on persuasive communication began in earnest during World War II in an attempt to determine the eff ects of war-time propaganda (Hovland, Lumsdaine, and Sheffield, 1949).This was followed by a period of intensive experimental research at Yale University in the 1950s under the direction of Carl Hovland (Hovland, Janis, and Kelley, 1953; Sherif and Hovland, 1961). Although it was extremely prolific and highly influential, the program of research initiated by the Hovland group produced very few generalizable conclusions. By the late 1960s, disappointment with this approach had become widespread (see Eagly and Himmelfarb, 1974; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). In this section we review the major lines of work in the Hovland tradition and consider some of the reasons for its failure.Theoretical Orientation The empirical work of the Hovland group was guided by a loose theoretical analysis based on learning principles, and by a conceptual framework that incorporated context variables (source, message, channel, and receiver factors), target variables (immediate attitude change, retention, behav ior change), and mediating processes (attention, comprehension, and acceptance) (see McGuire, 1969, 1985). Very briefly, the theoretical analysis assumed that attitude change involves learning a new response to a given stimulus (the attitude object).Exposure to a persuasive message suggests the new response (the advocated position) and provides an opportunity to practice the response. The various contextual factors were assumed to facilitate learning by reinforcing and firmly embedding the new response in the receiver's response hierarchy. Empirical Research The conceptual framework of context, target, and mediating variables served to organize thinking about the persuasion process. However, much of the empirical research in the Hovland tradition dealt primarily with the impact of contextual factors.Thus, in the 1950s and 1960s, hundreds of studies were conducted to examine the effects of source credibility and attractiveness; receiver intelligence, self-esteem, and involvement; fea r appeals and order of presentation; distraction and forewarning; and a multitude of other contextual variables (see McGuire, 1985 for a recent review). Little attention was devoted to the dependent variable that serves as the target of the communication, although persistence of change over time was an early concern (see Cook and Flay, 1978). Of the mediating variables, only attention and comprehension were directly assessed.Thus, many studies contained a recall or recognition test to measure the degree to which the message was â€Å"received† (McGuire, 1968), that is, the degree to which the message was attended to and comprehended. Generally speaking, the purpose of the test was to make sure that reception did not vary across conditions of the experiment, and that whatever effects were observed could not be attributed to differences in reception. In other words, the goal was usually to rid the experiment of the mediating effect of reception, rather than to study reception i n its own right.Note also that the conceptual framework had little to say about the content of persuasive communication and what its role in the persuasion process might be. Message content was treated largely as a given, while the questions addressed had to do with the effects of contextual factors on the amount of change produced by the message in question. We shall see below that this approach to the study of persuasive communication was one of the major reasons for the failure of the Hovland tradition. Effects of source factors.One of the first lines of research initiated by the Hovland group dealt with the effects of communicator credibility (Hovland and Weiss, 1951), and innumerable studies since have manipulated this variable. Of all the contextual factors studied in the Hovland tradition, variations in source credibility have produced the most consistent findings. By and large, communicators high in expertise and trustworthiness tend to be more persuasive than communicators with low standing on these factors. However, even here, somePersuasive Communication Theory Page 6 contradictory evidence has been reported. Source credibility does not always increase the amount of change, and in some situations it can even have a negative effect (cf. McGuire, 1985, p. 263). Other source characteristics are generally found to have no simple or easily predictable effects on persuasion. The communicator's attractiveness, education, intelligence, social status, and so on can serve as cues for inferring expertise and can thus affect persuasion.However, these indirect effects do not appear to be strong enough to produce consistent results across different investigations. Effects of receiver factors. Age, gender, intelligence, self-esteem and other individual differences among receivers are rarely found to have strong effects on persuasion, and the results of different investigations are often inconsistent. Moreover, receiver factors are found to interact in complex ways with each other and with additional factors such as the complexity of the message, the type of arguments used, the credibility of the communicator, and so on.Effects of channel factors. A rather discouraging picture also emerged with respect to the effects of the medium of communication. While visual messages tend to be better liked and attended to than spoken or written messages, recall is sometimes better for written material, and adding pictures to print can be distracting (see McGuire, 1985, p. 283). In light of these contradictory effects, it is hardly surprising that empirical research on channel factors has produced largely inconsistent results.Effects of message factors. Some of the most complex patterns of findings are associated with message factors such as emotional versus nonemotional appeals, message style, and ordering of message content. With respect to the latter, consider for example whether one should state the message's basic position at the outset or at the end. Stating it at the beginning may have the advantage of clarity, making the source appear more trustworthy, and of attracting the attention of receivers sympathetic to the advocated position.It can also have the disadvantage, however, of lowering interest and antagonizing receivers initially opposed to the advocated position (McGuire, 1985). Other message factors can have equally complicated effects. To illustrate, consider the degree to which the message arouses fear or concern. Contrary to expectations, initial research (Janis and Feshbach, 1953) showed a low-fear message to be more effective than a high-fear message in producing compliance with recommended dental practices.Later research, however, has often found the opposite effect, and many investigations have reported no differences between high- and low-fear messages (for reviews, see Boster and Mongeau, 1985 and Higbee, 1969). Similarly inconsistent findings have emerged with respect to the effects of humor in persuasive comm unication (see Markiewicz, 1974). Retrospective In light of largely inconsistent research findings concerning the effects of contextual variables, many investigators became discouraged with the Hovland approach.Thus, after editing a book on attitude change in 1974, Himmelfarb and Eagly reached the following pessimistic conclusions: After several decades of research, there are few simple and direct empirical generalizations that can be made concerning how to change attitudes. In fact, one of the most salient features of recent research is the great number of studies demonstrating that the empirical generalizations of earlier research are not general, but contingent on conditions not originally apparent. (Himmelfarb and Eagly, 1974, p. 94. ) In fact, the complexity of the persuasion process noted by Himmelfarb and Eagly in their reference to contingencies has been a favorite explanation for the failure of the Hovland approach. This explanation holds that persuasion is influenced by so many different factors interacting with each other that only complicated, multidimensional research strategies can cope with the complexities. However, when investigators have studied higher-order interactions, no clear or replicable patterns have emerged.Indeed, there is serious doubt that the search for complicated interactions can ever be a viable strategy (cf. Cronbach, 1975; Nisbett, 1977). The role of the receiver. Besides failing to advance our understanding of the persuasion process, the complexity explanation had the Persuasive Communication Theory Page 7 unfortunate effect of hiding the basic shortcomings of the Hovland tradition and thus delaying the search for alternatives. As is usually the case, realizing where this approach went wrong is much easier in retrospect than it was at the time.Perhaps without meaning to, the Hovland group cast the receiver in a rather passive role whose task was to â€Å"learn† the information and recommended position presented in a message. Attention and comprehension would assure that the information was absorbed, and persuasion would thus follow automatically. This view of the receiver stands in clear contradiction to much that is known about information processing. People are far from passive receivers of information.Instead, they usually act on the information that is available, integrating it (Anderson, 1971), constructing interpretations of their own (Neisser, 1976), and going in many ways beyond the information given (Bruner, 1957). This is just as true in the domain of attitudes as it is in other areas of information processing. For example, research on impression formation has shown that people draw far-ranging inferences about the attributes of another person on the basis of very limited information (Asch, 1946; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Wiggins, 1973).Such inferences are often said to rely on â€Å"implicit theories of personality† (Schneider, 1973) which might suggest, among other things, th at if a person is said to be hostile, he is also likely to be rash, aggressive, and inconsiderate. Several other lines of research demonstrate more directly the potential importance of inference processes in persuasive communication. Thus it has been shown that a persuasive communication designed to produce a change in one belief will also lead to changes in other, related, beliefs (McGuire, 1960a; Wyer and Goldberg, 1970).It is even possible to produce change by merely making people aware of inconsistencies among their beliefs or values (McGuire, 1960b; Rokeach, 1971) in a process McGuire has termed the â€Å"Socratic† effect: After reviewing their beliefs, people tend to change some of them in the direction of increased logical consistency. In short, there is every reason to expect that receivers exposed to a persuasive communication may engage in an active process of deliberation that involves reviewing the information presented, accepting some rguments, rejecting others, and drawing inferences about issues addressed that go beyond what was mentioned in the original message. The image of the passive learner fostered in the Hovland tradition is thus highly misleading, and misses the most important aspect of persuasive communication: the receiver's capacity for reasoning and for being swayed by the merits of a well-presented argument. Persuasion by the Peripheral Route The passive-learner view of the receiver implicit in the Hovland approach quite naturally led to a focus on the persuasion context.If the communicator's task is to make sure that receivers learn and absorb the contents of the message, concern turns to a search for conditions that facilitate attention to the message and comprehension of its arguments, with a concomitant lessening of interest in what the receiver does with the information that is received. Ironically, recent theory and research have established the potential importance of contextual factors, at least under certain wellspec ified conditions. Once we realize what these conditions are, we can begin to understand the reasons for the inconsistent findings of research conducted within the Hovland paradigm.In the previous section we emphasized the active role of the receiver who may engage in an elaborate process of reasoning about the merits of the arguments presented in the message. This view assumes, first, that receivers are in fact sufficiently motivated to exert the required cognitive effort and, second, that they have the ability to carefully process the incoming information. It now appears that contextual factors influence persuasion only when one or both of these conditions are not met (Chaiken, 1980; Petty and Cacioppo, 1981, 1986).Motivation to process the message and elaborate on it is largely a matter of the receiver's involvement. Different aspects of the self may be activated in a given situation, depending largely on the issue addressed, and as a result, different kinds of involvement can be generated. Specifically, the message may create involvement by dealing with receivers' enduring values, with receivers' ability to obtain desirable outcomes or avoid undesirable outcomes, or with the impression receivers make on others Persuasive Communication Theory Page 8 (Johnson and Eagly, 1989).However, when the message has few implications for enduring values, for important outcomes, or for selfpresentation, it produces little motivation to carefully deliberate its contents. Ability to process a message is related to factors internal to the receiver as well as to external factors. Among the internal factors are familiarity with the issues and cognitive ability and intelligence, factors that tend to increase capacity for information processing; and preoccupation with other matters and lack of time, which tend to reduce the ability to elaborate.External factors that increase the ability to process include message repetition and clarity of presentation, while external distraction and use of complicated language can reduce processing ability. Some of the contextual factors studied by the Hovland group can come into play when internal or external factors lower the receiver's ability to process the information presented in the message. Empirical Research When ability and motivation to process the message are low, receivers can use peripheral cues (Petty and Cacioppo, 1986) or cognitive heuristics (Chaiken, 1980) to form their opinions.Chaiken assumed that receivers of a message, even if they are not very greatly involved, nevertheless are motivated to hold a â€Å"correct† view on the issue. Since, under conditions of low motivation and ability, receivers are either incapable or unwilling to deal with the merits of the advocated position, they look for contextual or peripheral cues that might provide a basis for forming an opinion. Perhaps the most powerful such cue is the communicator's credibility, and it may be argued that this is the reason for the relatively consistent findings associated with communicator credibility.The heuristic strategy might in this case involve the following line of reasoning: â€Å"If this expert on the matter says so, it must be right. † This heuristic appears quite reasonable in that it accepts the position advocated by a credible source, even if one has not carefully scrutinized the arguments presented. Receivers can also use the source's attractiveness, or factors related to the message such as the number of arguments it contains, as peripheral cues. Thus, a message coming from a iked source might be viewed as more trustworthy, and one that contains many arguments (even if specious) might be seen as more reliable than a message that contains few arguments. Note, however, that these rules of thumb are far less convincing as a rational basis for accepting or rejecting an advocated position, and it is perhaps for this reason that factors of this kind often fail to have strong or consistent effe cts on persuasion. In any event, relying on heuristics obviates the need for careful message processing, and at the same time provides a basis for adoption of a position on the issue.Recent empirical research tends to support this view of the peripheral route to persuasion, although some complications have recently been noted (Johnson and Eagly, in press). Since excellent reviews are available elsewhere (Chaiken, 1987; Petty and Cacioppo, 1986), we limit our discussion here to an example concerning the effects of source characteristics. Recall that communicator attractiveness was one of the source characteristics studied in the Hovland paradigm that did not have a clear and consistent effect on persuasion.If treated as a peripheral cue used only when processing motivation or ability is low, more consistent findings tend to emerge. Attractiveness of the source has been varied by attributing the message to famous versus unknown individuals (Petty, Cacioppo, and Schumann, 1983) or to a likable versus an unlikable person (Chaiken, 1980). The investigators also manipulated the degree of involvement and found, as expected, that communicator attractiveness has a significantly greater effect on persuasion under low than under high involvement.Conclusions Work on the peripheral route to persuasion suggests that the source, message, channel, and receiver factors studied in the Hovland tradition can indeed influence the effectiveness of a message, but that this is likely to be the case only under conditions of low motivation or low ability to process the message. Such conditions can be obtained in the psychological laboratory that ensures some degree of attention by a captive audience even if the receivers have little interest in the topic or lack the ability to process the information presented (Hovland, 1959).In more naturalistic field settings, receivers who Persuasive Communication Theory Page 9 lack the motivation or ability to process a message can usually leave th e situation, while those who remain and are exposed to the message will tend to be sufficiently involved and able to process the information it contains. Persuasion by the peripheral route is clearly an inappropriate model for many realistic situations, and it is often inapplicable even in the artificial context of the laboratory.REASONING AND PERSUASION Even when it works, there is something distinctly unsatisfactory in the demonstration of change via the peripheral route, because the change brought about does not represent persuasion as we usually think of it. We noted at the beginning that it is the process of reasoning, the evaluation of the merits of arguments in favor and opposed to the advocated position, that is at the heart of persuasive communication. Persuasion involves more than simply oing along with an expressed point of view because of the presence of some peripheral cue; it requires that the advocated position be accepted only after careful scrutiny of the message an d after application of whatever other information the receiver can bring to bear. Moreover, change produced by the peripheral route is generally of little practical significance. Petty and Cacioppo (1986) noted that peripheral attitude change tends to be shortlived, tends to be susceptible to counterpropaganda (McGuire, 1964), and tends to have little effect on actual behavior.Clearly then, from both a theoretical and a practical point of view it would be to our advantage to focus less on the context of persuasion and more on the central processes that occur when a person is exposed to a message. Persuasion by the Central Route In the remainder of this chapter we examine persuasion that occurs when the receiver of a message is sufficiently able and motivated to give at least some scrutiny to the contents of the communication and to evaluate the merits of the arguments it contains.This has been termed the central route to persuasion (Petty and Cacioppo, 1981) and the deliberations re ceivers perform are known as systematic information processing (Chaiken, 1980). Instead of asking what makes a given message more effective, we must now ask how to construct an effective message. That is, what arguments, when systematically processed via the central route, will have the greatest impact on the receiver's attitudes and behavior? Before we can review what is known about this question, however, we must consider the role of the receiver in greater detail. The Elaboration Likelihood Model.The peripheral route to persuasion discussed earlier is one of two tracks a receiver can take in Petty and Cacioppo's (1981, 1986) elaboration likelihood model (ELM). The second track is persuasion via the central route. According to the ELM, central route persuasion depends on and is determined by the degree to which receivers elaborate on the information presented in the message. Briefly, during exposure to a persuasive communication, receivers are assumed to generate arguments of thei r own, either in support of the advocated position (pro arguments) or opposed to it (con arguments).These cognitive responses determine the direction and degree of change in attitudes and behavior. Increased motivation and ability to process the information in the message is, according to the model, associated with an increase in the number of cognitive responses (pro and con arguments) generated. To the extent that the number of arguments generated on the pro side exceeds the number of arguments on the con side, the receiver will change in the advocated direction. When elaboration leads to the production of more con than pro arguments, however, either no change or a â€Å"boomerang effect† (change in the opposite direction) may occur.From the communicator's point of view, therefore, motivation and ability to elaborate on message content is a two-edged sword. If, on balance, the thoughts generated by the receiver favor the advocated position, then the central route to persuas ion works to the communicator's advantage. On the other hand, if the receiver's cognitive responses consist predominantly of counterarguments, then elaboration on message content can be quite detrimental to the communicator's purpose.A number of studies, summarized in Petty and Cacioppo (1986), have examined the role of cognitive responses in the persuasion process. In these studies, cognitive responses are elicited Persuasive Communication Theory Page 10 in a free-response format following exposure to the message. The thoughts listed by the receivers are coded as either in favor or opposed to the advocated position, and the number of responses of each type is determined. Results, by and large, support the idea that the production of cognitive responses increases with motivation and ability to elaborate.Moreover, it is also found that changes in attitudes and behavior are consistent with the pattern of cognitive responses that are generated: a balance of thoughts in favor of the adv ocated position tends to be associated with change in the desired direction. 2 Yielding and Impact. Consideration of cognitive responses generated by receivers in the course of exposure to the message is, however, not sufficient to account for observed changes in attitudes and behavior. For change to occur in the central mode, some of the receiver's fundamental beliefs and values must undergo modification.Elaboration on the message may in fact lead to changes in cognitive structure, but evidence for the production of pro- or counter-arguments does not, in itself, assure that such changes have indeed taken place. Work on the elaboration likelihood model has focused primarily on cognitive responses to the message and has not dealt directly with changes in cognitive structure. The ideas discussed below are based on other recent work concerning persuasive communication via the central route (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975, 1981).According to Fishbein and Ajzen, a message can bring about chang es in a receiver's cognitive structure in one of two ways. First, in a process termed yielding, acceptance of arguments presented in the message can produce changes in corresponding beliefs held by the receiver. Consider, for example, a pregnant smoker who initially is not aware that cigarette smoking can adversely affect the health of her unborn baby. This woman is now exposed to a message containing an argument and supportive evidence that establish the link between smoking and adverse health effects on the fetus.To the extent that the argument is accepted, it produces yielding in the sense that the woman's cognitive structure now contains a new belief that corresponds directly to the argument in question. That is, she now believes, as stated in the message, that smoking may have ill effects on her unborn baby. Changes in a receiver's primary beliefs, however, can extend far beyond the information directly contained in the message. Such changes that go beyond the information given are termed impact effects.To illustrate, the pregnant woman exposed to the message that smoking can have detrimental health effects on her fetus may infer that she would feel guilty if she did not stop smoking and that her doctor would want her to quit, even though neither argument was explicit in the message. It is also possible, however, for her to draw inferences that would work against the aims of the communicator. For example, the woman may unexpectedly form the belief that quitting would be even worse than continued smoking because it would result in overeating.These impact effects can, of course, play a major role in the woman's decision to quit or not to quit smoking. Evidence for the importance of considering yielding as well as impact effects can be found in a study on drinking reported in Ajzen and Fishbein (1980, pp. 218-242). Persuasive Argumentation The challenge facing a communicator trying to produce change via the central route is to create a message that will orig inate favorable responses, produce yielding to its arguments, and generate impact effects in accordance with the advocated change.Arguments contained in a message can be considered effective to the extent that they influence the receiver's cognitive structure. The essential question, therefore, is what makes an argument effective. In light of the fact that rhetoricians have written about argumentation for over 2,000 years, it is surprising how little empirical knowledge is available about the relative effectiveness of different types of arguments (McGuire, 1985). An analysis of this problem reveals at least three important aspects of an argument's effectiveness: novelty, strength, and relevance.Below we discuss each of these aspects in turn. Argument Novelty Persuasive Communication Theory Page 11 An argument contained in a message may well be accepted (i. e. , believed to be true), but if the receiver already held the belief in question before exposure to the message, no change in belief structure would result (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1981). To be effective therefore, an argument contained in a message must not be part of the receiver's initial belief system. Some empirical evidence for this proposition can be found in research on group decision making (Vinokur and Burnstein, 1974).In the course of group discussions, members who offer novel arguments in support of a given decision alternative are found to be more influential than members who raise points that are well known to the rest of the group. Argument Strength Besides being novel, an argument must also be strong if it is to sway the receiver to adopt the advocated position. A strong argument is one that tends to produce agreement (positive thoughts) and does not encourage generation of many counterarguments (Petty and Cacioppo, 1986). Although it is not clear what makes a strong argument, its strength or weakness can be empirically established.Earlier in this chapter we gave an illustrative example of a pe rsuasive argument taken from Petty and Cacioppo's (1986) research program. The argument asserted that instituting a senior comprehensive examination would raise grade point averages (see p. xx). This argument and the associated evidence make a strong case for the advocated position. Compare this to the following argument, also designed to generate support for a comprehensive exam. The National Scholarship Achievement Board recently revealed the results of a study they conducted on the effectiveness of comprehensive exams at Duke University.One major finding was that student anxiety had increased by 31%. At comparable schools without the exam, anxiety increased by only 8%. The Board reasoned that anxiety over the exams, or fear of failure, would motivate students to study more in their courses while they were taking them. It is likely that this increase in anxiety observed at Duke University would also be observed and be of benefit at other universities that adopt the exam policy (Pe tty and Cacioppo, 1986, p. 57). Although this argument is quite similar in structure to the strong argument presented earlier, it appears to present a much weaker case.In fact, this argument is typically found to generate many counterarguments. Clearly, in order to create an effective message, it is in the communicator's interest to select strong arguments and avoid including arguments that tend to elicit negative thoughts about the advocated position. Argument Relevance Related to the question of an argument's strength is its relevance to the advocated position. An argument may be strong in the sense that it generates few counterarguments and many pro arguments, but if it addresses an issue that is not directly relevant to the advocated position, it may fail to produce the desired effect.This point is often not sufficiently appreciated. Suppose a communicator would like to convince students to attend an anti-apartheid demonstration in Washington, D. C. , and thus exposes the studen ts to a persuasive message against apartheid in South Africa. Although the arguments contained in the message may be strong in the sense that they are believable and generate few counterarguments, the message may not be very effective as a means of inducing students to go to Washington.To make the message more relevant in terms of this goal, one would have to include strong arguments that deal more directly with the advantages of attending the planned demonstration. A relevant argument, then, is one that changes those primary beliefs of the receiver that are directly related to the target of the influence attempt, that is, to the attitude or behavior the communicator wishes to affect. Different target variables are based on different primary beliefs, and an effective message must be tailored to fit the target in question.General discussions of different target variables and their respective foundations of primary beliefs can be found in Fishbein and Ajzen (1975, 1981) and in Fishbei n and Manfredo (Chapter xx, this volume). It is beyond the scope of this chapter to provide an in-depth review. Briefly, Fishbein and Ajzen distinguish Persuasive Communication Theory Page 12 among beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and behaviors as possible targets of a persuasive communication. To effect a change in any one of these target variables, the message arguments must be directed at the primary beliefs that provide the basis for the target in question.The first step in the construction of a message, therefore, requires a decision about the relevant primary beliefs, a process that cannot be left to intuition but must be guided by a model of the target's determinants. Social psychologists have discussed a variety of approaches to understanding beliefs and attitudes and their relations to behavior, but perhaps the most popular models can be found within the framework of the theory of reasoned action (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980) and its recent extension, the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985, 1988).The discussion below considers each target variable in turn; however, a full understanding of the process is gained only by considering the relations among the different variables. Changing behavior. According to the theory of reasoned action, many behaviors of interest to social psychologists are under volitional control and, hence, are in an immediate sense determined by the intention to perform the behavior in question. A successful persuasive communication designed to change a certain behavior must therefore contain arguments that will bring about a change in the antecedent intention. The theory of planned behavior oes beyond the question of intended action, taking into account the possibility that the behavior of interest may not be completely under volitional control. To be successful, the message may have to provide information that will enable the receiver to gain volitional control and overcome potential obstacles to perfor mance of the behavior. A review of evidence in support of these propositions can be found in Ajzen (1988). Changing intentions. The antecedents of behavioral intentions are, according to the theory of reasoned action, the person's attitude toward the behavior and his or her subjective norm.The attitude toward the behavior refers to the evaluation of the behavior as desirable or undesirable, and the subjective norm is the perceived social pressure to perform or not to perform the behavior in question. The theory of planned behavior again adds to this model a consideration of volitional control. When issues of control arise, intentions are influenced not only by attitudes and subjective norms but also by perceived behavioral control (Ajzen and Madden, 1986; Schifter and Ajzen, 1985).A persuasive communication designed to influence intentions (and thus also behavior) can be directed at one or more of the intention's three determinants: attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavio ral control. Changing attitudes. We arrive at the level of primary beliefs as we consider the determinants of a person's attitudes. According to the theory of reasoned action, attitudes are a function of salient beliefs about the attitude object (a person, group, institution, behavior or other event). Each salient belief links the object to an attribute or to an outcome in the case of a behavior.The attitude is determined by the strength of these beliefs and by the evaluations associated with the attributes (Fishbein, 1963; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). Beliefs about the attitude object that are salient prior to presentation of the message can be elicited in a free-response format. The message is then constructed such that it will either change some of the existing beliefs, either in their strength or their evaluations, or introduce new beliefs into the belief system. Changing beliefs. To change a specific belief on an issue, the persuasive communication has to address some of the info rmation on which the belief is based.Several probabilistic models that link prior information to a given belief have been proposed and validated (McGuire, 1960b; Wyer and Goldberg, 1970; for a review see Slovic, Fischhoff, and Lichtenstein, 1977). These models suggest that the information introduced by the persuasive communication must be information from which the belief in question can be probabilistically inferred. Conclusions The focus in recent years on the central route to persuasion holds great promise for a better understanding of persuasive communication.This route deals with the essence of the persuasion process, with changes in the fundamental beliefs on which the receivers' attitudes and actions are based. Although much remains to be done, social psychologists have gained considerable insight into some of the cognitive processes that are at work during and Persuasive Communication Theory Page 13 after exposure to a persuasive communication, and into the practical aspects of constructing an effective message. SUMMARY This chapter provided a brief historical perspective on persuasive communication theory in social psychology.No attempt was made to discuss all theoretical developments in detail as this task would require a book in itself. Instead, the focus was on a few dominant lines of theoretical development, from the beginnings of scientific research on persuasion in the 1940s to the present day. The work initiated by Hovland and his associates tended to view the receivers of a persuasive communication as passively learning the information presented and then changing their beliefs and attitudes accordingly. This view led to a concern with contextual factors, and virtual neglect of the contents of the communication and its processing by the receiver.Few generalizable conclusions emerged from the research guided by this approach, and by the late 1960s the failure of the Hovland approach was widely acknowledged. Progress was recorded when attention t urned from contextual or peripheral factors to persuasion via the central route. Contextual factors were found to be important only under conditions of low involvement or low ability to process the message. It was discovered, however, as a general rule, that receivers of a message are far from passive, engaging in an active process of analyzing and elaborating on the information presented.It became clear that the effects of a persuasive communication could not be understood unless careful attention was given to these cognitive processes. Theoretical and empirical developments of the past two decades have enabled us to consider receivers' cognitive responses during exposure to a message, yielding to the arguments contained in the message, and the message's impact on other beliefs not explicitly mentioned. These developments have also resulted in a much closer examination of the contents of persuasive communications, with an eye toward selecting arguments that will have the maximum ef fect on the target of the influence attempt.In this way, the theoretical developments of recent years have important implications for the practitioner who is concerned with constructing effective persuasive communications. Persuasive Communication Theory Page 14 REFERENCES Ajzen, I. 1985. From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior. In: J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann, eds. Action-control: From cognition to behavior. Heidelberg: Springer: 11-39. Ajzen, I. 1988. Attitudes, personality, and behavior. Chicago: Dorsey Press. Ajzen, I. , & Fishbein, M. 1980. Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood-Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Ajzen, I. & Madden, T. J. 1986. Prediction of goal-directed behavior: Attitudes, intentions, and perceived behavioral control. 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